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Communication | Automatic_curb_sender | The automatic curb sender was a kind of telegraph key, invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin for sending messages on a submarine communications cable, as the well-known Wheatstone transmitter sends them on a land line.
In both instruments, the signals are sent by means of a perforated ribbon of paper but the cable sender was the more complicated, because the cable signals are formed by both positive and negative currents, and not merely by a single current, whether positive or negative. Moreover, to curb the prolongation of the signals due to electromagnetic induction, each signal was made by two opposite currents in succession: a positive followed by a negative, or a negative followed by a positive. The aftercurrent had the effect of "curbing" its precursor.
For some time, it was the only instrument delicate enough to receive the signals transmitted through a long cable.
This self-acting cable key was brought out in 1876, and tried on the lines of the Eastern Telegraph Company.
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Communication | Biocommunication_(science) | In the study of the biological sciences, biocommunication is any specific type of communication within (intraspecific) or between (interspecific) species of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and microorganisms. Communication means sign-mediated interactions following three levels of rules (syntactic, pragmatic and semantic). Signs in most cases are chemical molecules (semiochemicals), but also tactile, or as in animals also visual and auditive. Biocommunication of animals may include vocalizations (as between competing bird species), or pheromone production (as between various species of insects), chemical signals between plants and animals (as in tannin production used by vascular plants to warn away insects), and chemically mediated communication between plants and within plants.
Biocommunication of fungi demonstrates that mycelia communication integrates interspecific sign-mediated interactions between fungal organisms, soil bacteria and plant root cells without which plant nutrition could not be organized. Biocommunication of Ciliates identifies the various levels and motifs of communication in these unicellular eukaryotes. Biocommunication of Archaea represents key levels of sign-mediated interactions in the evolutionarily oldest akaryotes. Biocommunication of phages demonstrates that the most abundant living agents on this planet coordinate and organize by sign-mediated interactions. Biocommunication is the essential tool to coordinate behavior of various cell types of immune systems.
Biocommunication theory may be considered to be a branch of biosemiotics. Whereas biosemiotics studies the production and interpretation of signs and codes, biocommunication theory investigates concrete interactions mediated by signs. Accordingly, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of biocommunication processes are distinguished. Biocommunication specific to animals (animal communication) is considered a branch of zoosemiotics. The semiotic study of molecular genetics, can be considered a study of biocommunication at its most basic level.Interpreting stimuli from the environment is an essential part of life for any organism. Abiotic things that an organism must interpret include climate (weather, temperature, rainfall), geology (rocks, soil type), and geography (location of vegetation communities, exposure to elements, location of food and water sources relative to shelter sites).Birds, for example, migrate using cues such as the approaching weather or seasonal day length cues. Birds also migrate from areas of low or decreasing resources to areas of high or increasing resources, most commonly food or nesting locations. Birds that nest in the Northern Hemisphere tend to migrate north in the spring due to the increase in insect population, budding plants and the abundance of nesting locations. During the winter birds will migrate south to not only escape the cold, but find a sustainable food source.
Some plants will bloom and attempt to reproduce when they sense days getting shorter. If they cannot fertilize before the seasons change and they die then they do not pass on their genes. Their ability to recognize a change in abiotic factors allow them to ensure reproduction.
Trans-organismic communication is when organisms of different species interact. In biology the relationships formed between different species is known as symbiosis. These relationships come in two main forms - mutualistic and parasitic. Mutualistic relationships are when both species benefit from their interactions. For example, pilot fish gather around sharks, rays, and sea turtles to eat various parasites from the surface of the larger organism. The fish obtain food from following the sharks, and the sharks receive a cleaning in return.Parasitic relationships are where one organism benefits off of the other organism at a cost. For example, in order for mistletoe to grow it must leach water and nutrients from a tree or shrub.
Communication between species is not limited to securing sustenance. Many flowers rely on bees to spread their pollen and facilitate floral reproduction. To allow this, many flowers evolved bright, attractive petals and sweet nectar to attract bees. In a 2010 study, researchers at the University of Buenos Aires examined a possible relationship between fluorescence and attraction. The study concluded that reflected light was much more important in pollinator attraction than fluorescence.
Communicating with other species allows organisms to form relationships that are advantageous in survival, and all of these relationships are all based on some form of trans-organismic communication.
Inter-organismic communication is communication between organisms of the same species (conspecifics). Inter-organismic communication includes human speech, which is key to maintaining social structures.Dolphins communicate with one another in a number of ways by creating sounds, making physical contact with one another and through the use of body language. Dolphins communicate vocally through clicking sounds and pitches of whistling specific to only one individual. The whistling helps communicate the individual's location to other dolphins. For example, if a mother loses sight of her offspring, or when two familiar individuals cannot find each other, their individual pitches help navigate back into a group. Body language can be used to indicate numerous things such as a nearby predator, to indicate to others that food has been found, and to demonstrate their level of attractiveness in order to find a mating partner, and even more.
However, mammals such as dolphins and humans are not alone communicating within their own species. Peacocks can fan their feathers in order to communicate a territorial warning. Bees can tell other bees when they have found nectar by performing a dance when they return to the hive. Deer may flick their tails to warn others in their trail that danger is approaching.
Intra-organismic communication is not solely the passage of information within an organism, but also concrete interaction between and within cells of an organism, mediated by signs. This could be on a cellular and molecular level. An organism's ability to interpret its own biotic information is extremely important. If the organism is injured, falls ill, or must respond to danger, it needs to be able to process that physiological information and adjust its behavior.For example, when the human body starts to overheat, specialized glands release sweat, which absorbs the heat and then evaporates.
This communication is imperative to survival in many species including plant life. Plants lack a central nervous system so they rely on a decentralized system of chemical messengers. This allows them to grow in response to factors such as wind, light and plant architecture. Using these chemical messengers, they can react to the environment and assess the best growth pattern. Essentially, plants grow to optimize their metabolic efficiency.
Humans also rely on chemical messengers for survival. Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone that is secreted during times of great stress. It binds to receptors on the surface of cells and activates a pathway that alters the structure of glucose. This causes a rapid increase in blood sugar. Adrenaline also activates the central nervous system increasing heart rate and breathing rate. This prepares the muscles for the body's natural fight-or-flight response.
Organisms rely on many different means of intra-organismic communication. Whether it is through neural connections, chemical messengers, or hormones, these all evolved to respond to threats, maintain homeostasis and ensure self preservation.
Given the complexity and range of biological organisms and the further complexity within the neural organization of any particular animal organism, a variety of biocommunication languages exists.A hierarchy of biocommunication languages in animals has been proposed by Subhash Kak: these languages, in order of increasing generality, are associative, re-organizational, and quantum. The three types of formal languages of the Chomsky hierarchy map into the associative language class, although context-free languages as proposed by Chomsky do not exist in real life interactions.
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Communication | China_Internet_Network_Information_Center | The China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC; 中国互联网络信息中心) is a public institution affiliated with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Founded on 3 June 1997 and based in Zhongguancun, Beijing, the center manages the country code top-level domain name of the People's Republic of China, namely the .cn domain name.
CNNIC is responsible for operating and administering China’s domain name registry. CNNIC manages both the ".cn" country code top level domain and the Chinese domain name system (internationalized domain names that contain Chinese characters). As of April 2017, the total number of Chinese domain names was about 21 million.As of January 2017, CNNIC only opened the CN domain to registered businesses, required supporting documentations for domain registration such as business license or personal ID, and suspended overseas registrars even for domestic registrants. CNNIC denied that it mandated existing personal domain names to be transferred to businesses. Trend Micro suggested this move was still not enough to stop modern security threats from the .cn domain.
CNNIC allocates Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and AS Numbers to domestic ISPs and users. CNNIC is a National Internet Registry (NIR) acknowledged by the Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC). In late 2004 CNNIC launched an “IP Allocation Alliance” which simplified the procedures for obtaining IP addresses.CNNIC is responsible for the creation and maintenance of the state top-level network catalog database. This database provides information on Internet users, web addresses, domain names, and AS numbers.CNNIC conducts technical research and undertakes state technical projects based on its administrative and practical network technology experience.CNNIC has conducted, and continues to conduct, surveys of Internet information resources. CNNIC maintains statistics on topics such as Internet bandwidth in China, Domain Name registrations, and Internet Development in China.As the national Network Information Center (NIC), CNNIC maintains cooperative relationships with other International Internet Communities, and works closely with NICs of other countries.CNNIC serves as the Secretariat of the Internet Society of China’s Internet Policy and Resource Committee. The Policy and Resource committee is in charge of tasks such as providing policy and legislation oriented suggestions to promote the growth of China’s internet, facilitating the development and application of Internet resources and relevant technologies, and actively participating in the research work of domestic Internet development and administration policies.In July 2008, a broad alliance of Chinese online commerce stakeholders, including CNNIC, all major Chinese commercial banks and web hosting companies, founded the Anti-Phishing Alliance of China (APAC) in order to tackle phishing activities that abuse .cn sub-domain names. CNNIC also functions as the secretariat of APAC.In 2015, Google discovered that CNNIC had issued an intermediate CA certificate to an Egypt-based firm that used CNNIC's keys to impersonate Google domains. Google responded by removing CNNIC's root certificate from the certificate store in Google Chrome and all of Google's products.Mozilla responded to the incident, stating that "The Mozilla CA team believes that CNNIC’s actions amount to egregious behaviour, and the violations of policy are greater in severity than those in previous incidents. CNNIC’s decision to violate their own Certification Practice Statement is especially serious, and raises concerns that go beyond the immediate scope of the misissued intermediate certificate. After public discussion... we are planning to change Firefox’s certificate validation code such that it refuses to trust any certificate issued by a CNNIC root with a notBefore date on or after 1 April 2015."
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Communication | Environmental_communication | Environmental communication is "the dissemination of information and the implementation of communication practices that are related to the environment. In the beginning, environmental communication was a narrow area of communication; however, nowadays, it is a broad field that includes research and practices regarding how different actors (e.g., institutions, states, people) interact with regard to topics related to the environment and how cultural products influence society toward environmental issues".
Environmental communication also includes human interactions with the environment. This includes a wide range of possible interactions, from interpersonal communication and virtual communities to participatory decision-making and environmental media coverage. From the perspective of practice, Alexander Flor defines environmental communication as the application of communication approaches, principles, strategies, and techniques to environmental management and protection.
Environmental Communication, breaking off from traditional rhetorical theory, emerged in the United States around the 1980s. Researchers began studying environmental communication as a stand-alone theory because of the way environmental activists used images and wording to persuade their public's. Since then, environmental communication theory has reached multiple milestones including the creation of the journal of environmental communication in 2007.As an academic field, environmental communication emerged from interdisciplinary work involving communication, environmental studies, environmental science, risk analysis and management, sociology, and political ecology.In his 2004 textbook, Alexander Flor considers environmental communication to be a significant element in the environmental sciences, which he believes to be transdisciplinary. He begins his textbook on environmental communication with a declarative statement: "Environmentalism as we know it today began with environmental communication. The environmental movement was ignited by a spark from a writer’s pen, or more specifically and accurately, Rachel Carson’s typewriter." According to Flor, environmental communication has six essentials: knowledge of ecological laws; sensitivity to the cultural dimension; ability to network effectively; efficiency in using media for social agenda setting; appreciation and practice of environmental ethics; and conflict resolution, mediation and arbitration. In an earlier book published in 1993, Flor and colleague Ely Gomez explore the development of an environmental communication curriculum from the perspectives of practitioners from the government, the private sector, and the academe.
The role of Environmental Communication in education and academia is centered around goals through pedagogy. These are aimed at trying to increase ecological wakefulness, support a variety of practice-based ways of learning and building a relationship of being environmental change advocates.
In general, Environmental skepticism is an increasing challenge for environmental rhetoric.
The technological breakthroughs empowered by the appearance of the Internet are also contributing to environmental problems. Air pollution, acid rain, global warming, and the reduction of natural sources are also an outcome of online technologies. Netcraft argued that in the world, there are 7,290,968 web-facing computers, 214,036,874 unique domain names, and 1,838,596,056 websites leading to significant power consumption. Therefore, notions such as “Green Websites” have emerged for helping to tackle this issue. “Green Websites” is “associated with the climate-friendly policies and aims to improve the natural habitat of Earth. Renewable sources, the use of black color, and the highlight of the environmental news are some of the easiest and cheapest ways to contribute positively to climate issues”. The aforementioned term is under the umbrella of “Green Computing,” which is aiming to limit the carbon footprints, energy consumption and benefit the computing performance. Information and Communications technology aka ICT, has an obsessive amount of environment impacts through different types of disposal of devices and equipment that have been portrayed to give off harmful gasses and Bluetooth waves into the atmosphere that increase the carbon emissions. This has also shown that the technology has been used to minimize energy use, society always wants new technology no matter if it affects the environment good or not, but ICT has been cutting back and putting out better technology for our environment while still being able to communicate through society.
Environmental communication is also a type of symbolic action that serves two functions: Environmental human communication is pragmatic because it helps individuals and organizations to accomplish goals and do things through communication. Examples include educating, alerting, persuading, and collaborating. Environmental human communication is constitutive because it helps shape human understanding of environmental issues, themselves, and nature. Examples include values, attitudes, and ideologies regarding nature and environmental issues.In the book Pragmatic Environmentalism: Towards a Rhetoric of Eco-Justice, environmental philosopher Shane Ralston criticizes Cox's pragmatic function of environmental communication for being too shallow and instrumental, recommending instead a deeper account borrowed from Pragmatism: "[A]n even better way to move beyond a conception of pragmatic rhetoric as shallow instrumentalism and deepen the meaning of pragmatic[...] is to look instead to philosophical pragmatism’s other rich resources, for instance, to its fallibilism, experimentalism, and meliorism."
Environmental nature communication occurs when plants actually communicate within ecosystems: "A plant injured on one leaf by a nibbling insect can alert its other leaves to begin anticipatory defense responses." Furthermore, "plant biologists have discovered that when a leaf gets eaten, it warns other leaves by using some of the same signals as animals". The biologists are "starting to unravel a long-standing mystery about how different parts of a plant communicate with one another."
All beings are connected by the Systems Theory, which submits that one of the three critical functions of living systems is the exchange of information with its environment and with other living systems (the other two being the exchange of materials and the exchange of energy). Flor extends this argument, saying: "All living systems, from the simplest to the most complex, are equipped to perform these critical functions. They are called critical because they are necessary for the survival of the living system. Communication is nothing more than the exchange of information. Hence, at its broadest sense, environmental communication is necessary for the survival of every living system, be it an organism, an ecosystem, or (even) a social system."
Environmental Communication plays an integral role in sustainability science. By taking knowledge and putting it into action. Since Environmental Communication is focused on everyday practices of speaking and collaborating, it has a deep understanding in the public discussion of environmental policy. Something that sustainability science has a shortcoming of. Sustainability science requires cooperation between stakeholders and thus requires constructive communication between those stakeholders to create sustainable change.
Robert Cox is a leader in the discipline of environmental communication and its role in the public sphere. Cox covers the importance of Environmental Communication and the role it plays in policy-making processes, advocacy campaigns, journalism, and environmental movements. Something that Cox overlooks in the importance of Environmental communication in the Public Sphere is the role visual and aural communication, electronic and digital media, and perhaps most glaringly, popular culture. Along with the aforementioned limitations the media plays a major role in the conversation around the environment because of the framing effect and the impact that it has on the overall perception of the environment and the discussion surrounding it. Framing is something that has been important to many movements in the past but it is more than just creating slogans and the like. George Lakoff argues in favor of a social movement approach similar to the feminist movement or the civil rights movement.The field of Environmental Communication also faces challenges of being silenced and invalidated by governments. Environmental communication like many disciplines had challenges with people with opposing views points that make it difficult to spread a certain message. Environmental Communication like many highly polarized topics is prone to confirmation bias which makes it difficult to have compromises in the world of policy making for the environmental crisis. Along with confirmation bias, Echo chambers do much the same thing and are discussed by Christel van Eck who says with respect to environmental communication that echo chambers can reinforce preexisting climate change perceptions. which serve to make it more difficult to engage in real conversations about the topic. Another reason that it can be difficult to communicate about these things is that many people try to use directional motivated reasoning in which they try to find evidence to push a specific narrative on the topic. The effect that this has had on communicating this idea is examined by Robin Bayes and others who say that it can be very detrimental and divisive. One of the things that makes environmental narratives so dangerous is that it changes so often that it is very difficult to keep the information the same as it travels. This according to Miyase Christensen makes it so that the spreading of these narratives can be dangerous.
Environmental Communication faces a variety of challenges in the political environment due to increased polarization. People often feel threatened by arguments that do not align with their beliefs (boomerang effect). These can lead to psychological reactance, counter-arguing, and anxiety. This can cause difficulty in making progress in political change regarding environmental issues. When it comes to the increased polarization of movements regarding the environment some people point to the impact of identity campaigns because of the argument that fear is counterproductive. Robert Brulle argues this point and calls for a shift away from these identity campaigns and moving towards challenge campaigns.
Another limitation of the conversation regarding the environment is the fact that there are multiple agendas being set by different groups in China and the fact that they are different from one another. Along with this the idea that these two different groups are in some sort of a discussion is presented by Xiaohui Wang et. al.
A culture centered approach has been suggested by some like Debashish Munshi. These people argue for enacting change based on the knowledge of older cultures however it has to exist in a way that does not abuse the relationship between the older cultures and our current one which according to Munshi makes it very difficult to enact.
To understand the ways in which environmental communication has an effect on individuals, researchers believe that one's view on the environment shapes their views in a variety of ways. The overall study of environmental communication consists of the idea that nature "speaks." In this field, theories exist in an effort to understand the basis of environmental communication.Researchers view environmental communication as symbolic and material. They argue that the material world helps shape communication as communication helps shape the world. The word environment, a primary symbol in western culture, is used to shape cultural understandings of the material world. This understanding gives researchers the ability to study how cultures react to the environment around them.Humans react and form opinions based on the environment around them. Nature plays a role in human relations. This theory strives to make a connection between human and nature relations. This belief is at the core of environmental communication because it seeks to understand how nature affects human behavior and identity. Researchers point out that there can be a connection made with this theory and phenomenology.It is difficult to avoid the "call to action" when talking about environmental communication because it is directly linked with issues such as climate change, endangered animals, and pollution. Scholars find it difficult to publish objective studies in this field. However, others argue that it is their ethical duty to inform the public on environmental change while providing solutions to these issues. This idea that it can be damaging to a scientist's reputation to offer up opinions or solutions to the problem of Climate Change has been furthered by research done by Doug Cloud who had findings affirming this idea.As the following section suggests, there are many divisions of studies and practices in the field of environmental communication, one of which being social marketing and advocacy campaigns. Though this is a broad topic, a key aspect of successful environmental campaigns is the language used in campaign material. Researchers have found that when individuals are concerned & interested about environmental actions, they take well to messages with assertive language; However, individuals who are less concerned & interested about environmental stances, are more receptive to less assertive messages. Although communications on environmental issues often aim to push into action consumers who already perceive the issue being promoted as important, it is important for such message producers to analyze their target audience and tailor messages accordingly.
While there are some findings that there is a problem with scientists advocating for certain positions in a study conducted by John Kotcher and others it was found that there was no real difference between the credibility of scientists regardless of their advocacy unless they directly tried to argue in favor a specific solution to the problem. | [
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Communication | Facial_Action_Coding_System | The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is a system to taxonomize human facial movements by their appearance on the face, based on a system originally developed by a Swedish anatomist named Carl-Herman Hjortsjö. It was later adopted by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, and published in 1978. Ekman, Friesen, and Joseph C. Hager published a significant update to FACS in 2002. Movements of individual facial muscles are encoded by the FACS from slight different instant changes in facial appearance. It has proven useful to psychologists and to animators.
In 2009, a study was conducted to study spontaneous facial expressions in sighted and blind judo athletes. They discovered that many facial expressions are innate and not visually learned.Using the FACS human coders can manually code nearly any anatomically possible facial expression, deconstructing it into the specific "action units" (AU) and their temporal segments that produced the expression. As AUs are independent of any interpretation, they can be used for any higher order decision making process including recognition of basic emotions, or pre-programmed commands for an ambient intelligent environment. The FACS manual is over 500 pages in length and provides the AUs, as well as Ekman's interpretation of their meanings.The FACS defines AUs, as contractions or relaxations of one or more muscles. It also defines a number of "action descriptors", which differ from AUs in that the authors of the FACS have not specified the muscular basis for the action and have not distinguished specific behaviors as precisely as they have for the AUs.
For example, the FACS can be used to distinguish two types of smiles as follows:
the insincere and voluntary Pan-Am smile: contraction of zygomatic major alone
the sincere and involuntary Duchenne smile: contraction of zygomatic major and inferior part of orbicularis oculi.
The FACS is designed to be self-instructional. People can learn the technique from a number of sources including manuals and workshops, and obtain certification through testing.
Although the labeling of expressions currently requires trained experts, researchers have had some success in using computers to automatically identify the FACS codes. One obstacle to automatic FACS code recognition is a shortage of manually coded ground truth data.
The use of the FACS has been proposed for use in the analysis of depression, and the measurement of pain in patients unable to express themselves verbally.The original FACS has been modified to analyze facial movements in several non-human primates, namely chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, gibbons and siamangs, and orangutans. More recently, it was developed also for domestic species, including dogs, horses and cats. Similarly to the human FACS, the animal FACS has manuals available online for each species with the respective certification tests.Thus, the FACS can be used to compare facial repertoires across species due to its anatomical basis. A study conducted by Vick and others (2006) suggests that the FACS can be modified by taking differences in underlying morphology into account. Such considerations enable a comparison of the homologous facial movements present in humans and chimpanzees, to show that the facial expressions of both species result from extremely notable appearance changes. The development of FACS tools for different species allows the objective and anatomical study of facial expressions in communicative and emotional contexts. Furthermore, a cross-species analysis of facial expressions can help to answer interesting questions, such as which emotions are uniquely human.
The Emotional Facial Action Coding System (EMFACS) and the Facial Action Coding System Affect Interpretation Dictionary (FACSAID) consider only emotion-related facial actions. Examples of these are:
FACS coding is also used extensively in computer animation, in particular for computer facial animation, with facial expressions being expressed as vector graphics of AUs. FACS vectors are used as weights for blend shapes corresponding to each AU, with the resulting face mesh then being used to render the finished face. Deep learning techniques can be used to determine the FACS vectors from face images obtained during motion capture acting, facial motion capture or other performances.For clarification, the FACS is an index of facial expressions, but does not actually provide any bio-mechanical information about the degree of muscle activation. Though muscle activation is not part of the FACS, the main muscles involved in the facial expression have been added here.Action units (AUs) are the fundamental actions of individual muscles or groups of muscles.
Action descriptors (ADs) are unitary movements that may involve the actions of several muscle groups (e.g., a forward‐thrusting movement of the jaw). The muscular basis for these actions has not been specified and specific behaviors have not been distinguished as precisely as for the AUs.
For the most accurate annotation, the FACS suggests agreement from at least two independent certified FACS encoders.
Intensities of the FACS are annotated by appending letters A:E (for minimal-maximal intensity) to the action unit number (e.g. AU 1A is the weakest trace of AU 1 and AU 1E is the maximum intensity possible for the individual person). | [
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Communication | Global_information_system | Global information system is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context. Some examples of GIS are SAP, The Global Learning Objects Brokered Exchange and other systems.
There are a variety of definitions and understandings of a global information system (GIS, GLIS), such asA global information system (GIS) is an information system which is developed and / or used in a global context.
A global information system (GIS) is any information system which attempts to deliver the totality of measurable data worldwide within a defined context.
Common to this class of information systems is that the context is a global setting, either for its use or development process. This means that it highly relates to distributed systems / distributed computing where the distribution is global. The term also incorporates aspects of global software development and there outsourcing (when the outsourcing locations are globally distributed) and offshoring aspects. A specific aspect of global information systems is the case (domain) of global software development. A main research aspect in this field concerns the coordination of and collaboration between virtual teams. Further important aspects are the internationalization and language localization of system components.
Critical tasks in designing global information systems are Process and system design: How are the processes between distributed actors organized, how are the systems distributed / integrated.
Technical architecture: What is the technical infrastructure enabling actors to collaborate?
Support mechanisms: How are actors in the process of communication, collaboration, and cooperation supported?
A variety of examples can be given. Basically every multi-lingual website can be seen as a global information system. However, mostly the term GLIS is used to refer to a specific system developed or used in a global context.
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Communication | History_of_the_concept_of_creativity | The ways in which societies have perceived the concept of creativity have changed throughout history, as has the term itself. The ancient Greek concept of art (in Greek, "techne"—the root of "technique" and "technology"), with the exception of poetry, involved not freedom of action but subjection to rules. In Rome, the Greek concept was partly shaken, and visual artists were viewed as sharing, with poets, imagination and inspiration.
Under medieval Christianity, the Latin "creatio" came to designate God's act of "creatio ex nihilo" ("creation from nothing"); thus "creatio" ceased to apply to human activities. The Middle Ages, however, went even further than antiquity, when they revoked poetry's exceptional status: it, too, was an art and therefore craft and not creativity.
Renaissance men sought to voice their sense of their freedom and creativity. The first to apply the word "creativity", however, was the 17th-century Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski—but he applied it only to poetry. For over a century and a half, the idea of human creativity met with resistance, because the term "creation" was reserved for creation "from nothing".
Nineteenth century religious skepticism allowed for a change in definition: now not only was art recognized as creativity, but it alone was. And at the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences and in nature, this was taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts that were proper to art.
The ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator." The expression "poiein" ("to make") was applied specifically to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or "maker") who made it rather than to art in general in its modern understanding. For example, Plato asks in The Republic, "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?" and answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates." To the ancient Greeks, the concept of a creator and of creativity implied freedom of action, whereas the Greeks' concept of art involved subjection to laws and rules. Art (in Greek, "techne") was "the making of things, according to rules." It contained no creativity, and it would have been—in the Greeks' view—a bad state of affairs if it had.This understanding of art had a distinct premise: Nature is perfect and is subject to laws, therefore man ought to discover its laws and submit to them, and not seek freedom, which will deflect him from that optimum which he can attain. The artist was a discoverer, not an inventor.
The sole exception to this Greek view—a great exception—was poetry. The poet made new things—brought to life a new world—while the artist merely imitated. And the poet, unlike the artist, was not bound by laws. There were no terms corresponding to "creativity" or "creator," but in reality the poet was understood to be one who creates. And only he was so understood. In music, there was no freedom: melodies were prescribed, particularly for ceremonies and entertainments, and were known tellingly as "nomoi" ("laws"). In the visual arts, freedom was limited by the proportions that Polyclitus had established for the human frame, and which he called "the canon" (meaning, "measure"). Plato argued in Timaeus that, to execute a good work, one must contemplate an eternal model. Later the Roman, Cicero, would write that art embraces those things "of which we have knowledge" ("quae sciuntur").
Poets saw things differently. Book I of the Odyssey asks, "Why forbid the singer to please us with singing as he himself will?" Aristotle had doubts as to whether poetry was imitation of reality, and as to whether it required adherence to truth: it was, rather, the realm of that "which is neither true nor false."
In the Roman era, these Greek concepts were partly challenged. Horace wrote that not only poets but painters as well were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished to ("quod libet audendi"). In the declining period of antiquity, Philostratus wrote that "one can discover a similarity between poetry and art and find that they have imagination in common." Callistratos averred that "Not only is the art of the poets and prosaists inspired, but likewise the hands of sculptors are gifted with the blessing of divine inspiration." This was something new: classical Greeks had not applied the concepts of imagination and inspiration to the visual arts but had restricted them to poetry. Latin was richer than Greek: it had a term for "creating" ("creatio") and for "creator," and had two expressions—"facere" and "creare"—where Greek had but one, "poiein." Still, the two Latin terms meant much the same thing.A fundamental change, however, came in the Christian period: "creatio" came to designate God's act of "creation from nothing" ("creatio ex nihilo"). "Creatio" thus took on a different meaning than "facere" ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. As the 6th-century Roman official and literary figure Cassiodorus wrote, "things made and created differ, for we can make, who cannot create."
Alongside this new, religious interpretation of the expression, there persisted the ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity. This is seen in two early and influential Christian writers, Pseudo-Dionysius and St. Augustine. Later medieval men such as Hraban the Moor, and Robert Grosseteste in the 13th century, thought much the same way. The Middle Ages here went even further than antiquity; they made no exception of poetry: it too had its rules, was an art, and was therefore craft and not creativity.
The Renaissance saw a change in perspective. The philosopher Marsilio Ficino wrote that the artist "thinks up" ("excogitatio") his works; the theoretician of architecture and painting, Leon Battista Alberti, that he "preordains" ("preordinazione"); Raphael, that he shapes a painting according to his idea; Leonardo da Vinci, that he employs "shapes that do not exist in nature"; Michelangelo, that the artist realizes his vision rather than imitating nature; Giorgio Vasari, that "nature is conquered by art"; the Venetian art theoretician, Paolo Pino, that painting is "inventing what is not"; Paolo Veronese, that painters avail themselves of the same liberties as do poets and madmen; Federico Zuccari (1542:1609), that the artist shapes "a new world, new paradises"; Cesare Cesariano (1483:1541), that architects are "demi-gods." Among musicians, the Flemish composer and musicologist Johannes Tinctoris (1446:1511) demanded novelty in what a composer did, and defined a composer as "one who produces new songs."Still more emphatic were those who wrote about poetry: G.P. Capriano held (1555) that the poet's invention springs "from nothing." Francesco Patrizi (1586) saw poetry as "fiction," "shaping," "transformation."
Possibly the first to recognisably use the word "creation" in terms of human creativity was the 17th-century Polish poet and theoretician of poetry, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595:1640), known as "the last Latin poet." In his treatise, De perfecta poesi, he not only wrote that a poet "invents," "after a fashion builds," but also that the poet "creates anew" ("de novo creat"). Sarbiewski even added: "in the manner of God" ("instar Dei").Sarbiewski, however, regarded creativity as the exclusive privilege of poetry; creativity was not open to visual artists. "Other arts merely imitate and copy but do not create, because they assume the existence of the material from which they create or of the subject." As late as the end of the 17th century, André Félibien (1619:75) would write that the painter is "so to speak [a] creator." The Spanish Jesuit Baltasar Gracián (1601:58) wrote similarly as Sarbiewski: "Art is the completion of nature, as it were a second Creator..."
By the 18th century, the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory. It was linked with the concept of imagination, which was on all lips. Joseph Addison wrote that the imagination "has something in it like creation." Voltaire declared (1740) that "the true poet is creative." With both these authors, however, this was rather only a comparison of poet with creator.Other writers took a different view. Denis Diderot felt that imagination is merely "the memory of forms and contents," and "creates nothing" but only combines, magnifies or diminishes. It was precisely in 18th-century France, indeed, that the idea of man's creativity met with resistance. Charles Batteux wrote that "The human mind cannot create, strictly speaking; all its products bear the stigmata of their model; even monsters invented by an imagination unhampered by laws can only be composed of parts taken from nature." Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues (1715:47), and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715:80) spoke to a similar effect.
Their resistance to the idea of human creativity had a triple source. The expression, "creation," was then reserved for creation ex nihilo (Latin: from nothing), which was inaccessible to man. Second, creation is a mysterious act, and Enlightenment psychology did not admit of mysteries. Third, artists of the age were attached to their rules, and creativity seemed irreconcilable with rules. The latter objection was the weakest, as it was already beginning to be realized (e.g., by Houdar de la Motte, 1715) that rules ultimately are a human invention.
In the 19th century, art took its compensation for the resistance of preceding centuries against recognizing it as creativity. Now not only was art regarded as creativity, but it alone was. The art critic John Ruskin has often been referred to in the context of the transition to self-expression in the history of art education, though some scholars believe this to be a misreading.
At the turn of the 20th century, when there began to be discussion as well of creativity in the sciences (e.g., Jan Łukasiewicz, 1878:1956) and in nature (e.g., Henri Bergson), this was generally taken as the transference, to the sciences and to nature, of concepts proper to art.
The start of the scientific study of creativity is sometimes taken as J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, which helped popularize the subject.
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Communication | Regulatory_focus_theory | Regulatory focus theory (RFT) is a theory of goal pursuit formulated by Columbia University psychology professor and researcher E. Tory Higgins regarding people's motivations and perceptions in judgment and decision making processes. RFT examines the relationship between the motivation of a person and the way in which they go about achieving their goal. RFT posits two separate and independent self-regulatory orientations: prevention and promotion (Higgins, 1997).
This psychological theory, like many others, is applied in communication, specifically in the subfields of nonverbal communication and persuasion. Chronic regulatory focus is measured using the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (Higgins et al., 2001) or the Regulatory Strength measure. Momentary regulatory focus can be primed or induced.
To understand RFT, it is important to understand another of E. Tory Higgins' theories: regulatory fit theory. When a person believes that there is "fit", they will involve themselves more in what they are doing and "feel right" about it. Regulatory fit should not directly affect the hedonic occurrence of a thing or occasion, but should influence a person's assurance in their reaction to the object or event.Regulatory fit theory suggests that a match between orientation to a goal and the means used to approach that goal produces a state of regulatory fit that both creates a feeling of rightness about the goal pursuit and increases task engagement (Higgins, 2001, 2005). Regulatory fit intensifies responses, such as the value of a chosen object, persuasion, and job satisfaction.
Regulatory fit does not increase the assessment of a decision; instead when someone feels "right" about their decision, the experience of "correctness and importance" is transferred to the ensuing assessment of the chosen object, increasing its superficial worth. Research suggests that the "feeling right" experience can then sway retrospective or prospective evaluations. Regulatory fit can be manipulated incidentally (outside the context of interest) or integrally (within the context of interest).
RFT refers to when a person pursues a goal in a way that maintains the person's own personal values and beliefs, also known as regulatory orientation. This theory operates on the basic principle that people embrace pleasure but avoid pain, and they then maintain their regulatory fit based on this standard.The regulatory focus is basically the way in which someone approaches pleasure but avoids pain. An individual's regulatory focus concentrates on desired end-states, and the approach motivation used to go from the current state to the desired end-state. This theory differentiates between a promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains. This focus is more concerned with higher level gains such as advancement and accomplishment.
Another focus is the prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses. This focus emphasizes security and safety by following the guidelines and the rules.
These two regulatory focuses regulate the influences that a person would be exposed to in the decision-making process, and determine the different ways they achieve their goal, as discussed by RFT. An individual's regulatory orientation is not necessarily fixed. While individuals have chronic tendencies towards either promotion or prevention, these preferences may not hold for all situations. Furthermore, a specific regulatory focus can be induced.
The value taken from interaction and goal attainment can be either positive or negative. The decision has positive value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that fits their regulatory orientation and it will have negative value when people attempt to attain their goal in a way that does not fit their regulatory orientation. Regulatory fit allows value to be created by intensifying the commitment, based on one of the regulatory focus orientations. Making choices and fulfilling objectives are considered as activities, and with any activity, people can be more or less involved. When this involvement is strong, it can intensify the feelings and values about this activity, and the approach to the activity determines whether they are or are not satisfied with the outcome and method of achieving the outcome.
This theory has noteworthy implications for increasing the value of life. For example, in interpersonal conflict, if each person experiences "fit", each one will be satisfied with and committed to the outcome. In the broad sense, for people to appreciate their own lives, they need to be satisfied and "feel right" about what they are doing, and the way they are doing it. If it is not satisfying, it is known as "non-fit", and they will not reach their desired goal.
Regulatory focus theory, according to Higgins, views motivation in a way that allows an understanding of the foundational ways we approach a task or a goal. Different factors can motivate people during goal pursuit, and we self-regulate our methods and processes during our goal pursuit. RFT proposes that motivational strength is enhanced when the manner in which people work toward a goal sustains their regulatory orientation. Achieving a goal in a way that is consistent to a person's regulatory orientation leads to an individual sense of importance to the event. The impact of motivation is considered calculated and this creates a greater sense of commitment to the goal. The more strongly an individual is engaged (i.e., involved, occupied, fully engrossed) in an activity, the more intense the motivational force experienced. Engagement is of great importance to attain and motivate in order to reach a goal. Engagement serves as intensifier of the directional component of the value experience. An individual who is strongly engaged in a goal pursuits will experience a positive target more positively and a negative target more negatively.Individuals can pursue different goals with diverse regulatory orientations and in unlike ways. There are two different kinds of regulatory orientations that people use to obtain their goals: promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation. These terms are derived from E. Tory Higgins's Theory of Regulatory Focus. In which, he adds to the notion that people regulate their goal-oriented behavior in two very distinct ways, coined promotion-focus orientation and prevention-focus orientation
E. Tory Higgins uses this example: there is Student A and Student B, and they both have the shared goal to make an A in a class they are both taking in college. Student A uses a promotion-focus orientation which slants them towards achieving their goal and towards advancement, growth and life accomplishment. This would cause Student A to view the goal as an ideal that satisfies their need for accomplishment. Student B uses a prevention-focus orientation where the goal is something that should be realized because it fulfills their need for security, protection and prevention of negative outcomes. Student A uses an eager approach where they read extra materials to obtain their goal of an A. Student B uses a vigilant approach where they become more detail oriented and pay careful attention to completing all of the course requirements.
Both forms of regulatory orientation can work to fulfill goals, but the choice of orientation is based on individual preferences and style. When a person pursues their goal in the focus that fits their regulatory orientation, they are more likely to pursue their goal more eagerly and aggressively than if they were using the other focus. In this case each student has different styles. They both feel more comfortable in persuading their goal. The outcome in this experiment would have been different if the students were given an undesirable choice.
When people make decisions, they often envision the possible "pleasure or pain" of the possible outcomes that the focus orientation will produce. A person imagining making a pleasing choice is more likely to engage in promotion-focus orientation because envisioning the possible outcome of success maintains eagerness about the outcome but does not place importance on vigilance. A person imagining the possible pain by making an undesirable choice maintains more vigilance but less eagerness.
A person with promotion-focus orientation is more likely to remember the occasions where the goal is pursued by using eagerness approaches and less likely to remember occasions where the goal is pursued by vigilance approaches. A person with prevention-focus orientation is more likely to remember events where the goal is pursued by means of vigilance than if it was pursued using eagerness approaches.
When relating regulatory focus theory to persuasion, it is important to remember that RFT is a goal-attainment theory, and that RFT can spawn feelings of rightness/wrongness which in turn may produce formulations for judgments.The feelings of rightness give an individual more commitment to the information coming in and therefore can avoid endangering their regulatory fit which in turn changes their regulatory focus and accepting a probable motive to change. If a person experiences feelings of wrongness they will suffer negative emotions and deem the experience
and information as a threat to their regulatory fit and therefore a threat to their regulatory focus and their goal.
Studies have been done where fit and focus have been applied to show their applicability to consumer purchasing, health advisories, and social policy issues. To be persuaded is to change your prior feelings, actions, and/or beliefs on a matter to where you agree with the persuader.
The "fit" involved in RFT plays a large role in such issues and stories because it can be a device to help an individual receive and review the experience during a particular message delivery. Positive reinforcement and feelings of rightness while decoding the message creates a stronger engagement and relationship with processing the message, and negative reinforcement and feelings of wrongness lessens the engagement and attachment.
Researchers found that targeting the two different regulatory focus orientations, and their coinciding types of fit, works as an effective process to aid in persuasive charm or pull when they introduced a manner of persuasion where the framing of the message was everything and the content was irrelevant to uphold or interrupt a person's regulatory fit and follow the pattern of logic used in regulatory orientation.
Lee and Aaker (2004) conducted an experiment that involved whether or not to give their information in a prevention-focus- or promotion-focus-concerning way. The study involved an advertisement for a grape juice drink, which they split into two to create prevention-focus concerns (disease-preventing) and then promotion-focus concerns (energy enhancement). In doing so, they demonstrated that rather than trying to know each individual recipient's qualities, one needs only to start by nailing the focus (prevention/promotion) and then framing the message so that it creates that "rightness".
Some may confuse RFT with regulatory fit, regulatory relevance, message matching, and source attractiveness in such an example. The extent of similarities between closely related theories of RFT, such as ones stated above, make it hard to clarify when this theory is applicable or apparent in respect to the persuasion process.
RFT can be a useful outline for a better understanding of the effects of nonverbal cues in persuasion and impression formation. Regulatory Fit Theory suggests that the effect of a cue cannot be understood without remembering what the cue means given a recipient's focus orientation. Nonverbal cues can be used by the message source to vary delivery style, more specifically to convey eagerness or vigilance, of a given message in a way that will produce regulatory fit in message recipients of different focus orientations.
Advancement implies eager movement forward, so eagerness is conveyed by gestures that involve animated, broad opening movements such as hand movements projecting outward, forward leaning body positions, fast body movement, and fast speech rate. Caution implies vigilant carefulness, so vigilance should be conveyed by gestures that show precision like slightly backward-leaning body positions, slower body movement, and slower speech rate.
An eager nonverbal delivery style will result in greater message effectiveness for promotion-focus recipients than for prevention-focus recipients, while the opposite is true for a vigilant nonverbal style.
There are various aspects, which may contribute to whether or not a message's persuasive element is successful. One aspect is the effect of nonverbal cues and their association with persuasive appeals based on the message recipient's motivational regulatory orientation. This determines the recipient's impression of the source during impression formation.
Research has found that nonverbal cues are an essential element of most persuasive appeals. RFT creates the background that allows a prediction for when and for whom a nonverbal cue can have an effect on persuasion. When nonverbal cues and signals are used appropriately, they increase the effectiveness of persuasion.
RFT has also been applied within moral psychology to the topic of moral judgment, contrasting the notions of "oughts" and "ideals." | [
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Communication | Safety_sign | A safety sign is a sign designed to warn of hazards, indicate mandatory actions or required use of personal protective equipment, prohibit actions or objects, identify the location of firefighting or safety equipment, or marking of exit routes.
In addition to being encountered in industrial facilities; safety signs are also found in public places and communities, at electrical pylons and electrical substations, cliffs, beaches, bodies of water, on motorized equipment, such as lawn mowers, and areas closed for construction or demolition.
One of the earliest attempts to standardize safety signage in the United States was the 1914 Universal Safety Standards. The signs were fairly simple in nature, consisting of an illuminated board with "DANGER" in white letters on a red field. An arrow was added to draw attention to the danger if it was less obvious. Signs indicating exits, first aid kits consisted of a green board, with white letters. The goal with signs was to inform briefly.
The next major standards to follow were ASA Z35.1 in 1941, revised in 1959, 1968, and 1972.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration devised their requirements from ASA Z35.1-1968 in the development of their rules, OSHA §1910.145 for the usage of safety signage in workplaces.
In the 1980s, American National Standards Institute formed a committee to update the Z53 and Z35 standards. In 1991, ANSI Z535 was introduced, which was intended to modernize signage through increased use of symbols, the introduction of a new header, 'Warning' and requiring that wording not just state the hazard, but also the possible harm the hazard could inflict and how to avoid the hazard. Until 2013, OSHA regulations technically required usage of signage prescribed in OSHA §1910.145, based on the standard ASA Z35.1-1968. Regulation changes and clarification of the law now allow usage of signs complying with either OSHA §1910.145 or ANSI Z535 designs.Prior to widespread globalization and adoption of standards from the ISO, most countries developed their own standards for safety signage. Text only signs were common prior to introduction of European Council Directive 77/576/EEC on 25 July 1977, which required member states to have policies in place to ensure that "safety signs at all places of work conform to the principles laid down in Annex I", which required color coding and symbols.In 1992, the European Council Directive 92/58/EEC replaced EEC 77/576/EEC. The new directive included improved information on how to utilize safety signage effectively. Beyond safety signs, EEC Directive 92/58/EEC standardize markings for fire equipment, acoustic signals, verbal and hand signals for vehicle movements.
In 2013, the European Union adopted ISO 7010 to replace the symbols provided previously, adopting them as European Norm (EN) ISO 7010, standardizing symbols among the EU countries. Prior to this, while symbols were provided, symbols were permitted to vary in appearance "provided that they convey the same meaning and that no difference or adaptation obscures the meaning".
Australian safety signage started in 1952 as CZ4-1952: Safety signs for the occupational environment. It revised and redesignated as AS1319-1972 in 1972, with further revisions taking place in 1979, 1983 and 1994. In August 2018, AS1319-1994 was reconfirmed as still being valid and not in need of major revisions.Japanese safety signage is notable for its clear visual differences from international norms, such as use of square 'no symbols', vertical formatting of sign text. Safety sign standards are regulated by Japanese Industrial Standards through standards JIS Z9101 (Workplace and public area safety signs) JIS Z 9103 (Safety sign colors) and JIS Z 9104 (Safety signs - General specifications). While design trends have been moving towards international norms of ISO standards, differences are still present such as the use of symbols unique to the JIS standards, using colors differently from ISO standards.In addition to typical safety sign standards, Japan introduced JIS Z 9098 in 2016 specifically addressing emergency management needs: informing people of areas susceptible to natural disasters, evacuation routes and safe shelters from disasters. The standard's more unique aspect is the usage of maps and diagrams to provide more detailed information about the area's hazards, shelters and evacuation routes.
Chinese safety signage is regulated by Standardization Administration of China using GB standards 2893-2008 and 2894-2008, which all safety signs are legally required to comply with. Designs are similar to ISO 3864 and uses older ISO 7010 symbols, while adding several additional symbols covering a wider range of prohibitions and hazards.Modern signage design typically consists of a symbol, warning text, and in the United States, Canada, Australia a header consisting of a signal word.North American and some Australian safety signage utilize distinctive headers to draw attention to the risk of harm from a hazard. Headers have guidelines for usage, where conditions must be met to dictate which header must be used for a sign.The 2007 revisions to ANSI Z353.4 allowed for the 'safety alert symbol' found on 'Danger', Warning' and 'Caution' headers to be replaced with the ISO 7010 "W001 - General warning" symbol to enable compliance with ISO 3864-1 for signs used in international situations or equipment being exported abroad.
Additional headers designs exist, Z53.1-1968 prescribed a magenta and yellow 'Radiation' header for radiation hazards. Other headers have been created by sign manufacturers for various situations not covered Z53.1 standard, such as "Security Notice", "Biohazard", "Restricted Area".
As a means of overcoming language and literacy barriers, symbols depicting the hazards, required action or equipment, prohibited actions or items and safety equipment were introduced to safety signage during the 1990s. Globalization and increased international trade helped push this development, as a means of reducing costs associated with needing signage multiple languages. Increasingly, countries are adopting symbols used by ISO 7010 and UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, that harmonizes symbols internationally to reduce confusion, and bring themselves into compliance with international standards.For temporary situations such as wet floors, portable signs are used. They are designed to be self supporting and relatively easy to move once the task is complete. The 1914 Universal Safety Standards provided for a portable 'Danger' sign suitable for both hard floors and soft dirt. Portable signs can take a variety of forms, from a traffic cone with stick on letters, plastic a-frame signs, to safety signs mounted on poles with bases that enable movement.Wet floor signs are also intended to avoid legal liability from injury due failing to warn of an unsafe condition. They are usually yellow. The warning is sometimes enhanced with new technology to provide audible warnings. Robotic cleaning equipment can use wet floor signs with sonar gadgetry to know when its job is finished.
Since the late 1980s, more emphasis has been put on testing signage for clarity and to eliminate possible misunderstandings. Researchers have examined the impacts of using different signal words, inclusion of borders and color contrast with text and symbols against sign backgrounds. In 1999, a group of designers were tasked with creating standardized warning labels for personal watercraft. The group devised several versions of the same warning label using different symbols, wording and emphasis of key phrases through use of underlining, bold fonts and capitalizing. The label designs were reviewed by the United States Coast Guard, United States Power Squadron, industry representatives and subjected to ease of comprehension and readability tests. Results of these reviews and tests lead to further revisions of words and redesigning of some symbols. The resulting labels are still applied to personal watercraft nearly 20 years after their initial design.Placement of signs also affects the effectiveness of signs. A 1993 study tested compliance with a warning against loading the top drawer of a filing cabinet first. The warning was least effective when it was only placed on the shipping box, but most effective when placed as part of a removable cardboard sleeve that physically obstructed the top drawer, interfering with adding files to the drawer.
Sign effectiveness can be reduced from a number of factors, including information overload, where the sheer amount of information is presented in a manner that a reader is unable process it adequately, such as being confronted by a sign consisting of dozens of words with no paragraph breaks, or excessive amounts of unnecessary information. This can be prevented through simplifying warnings down to their key points, with supplementary manuals or training covering the more nuanced and minor information. Overwarning is a related problem, where warnings are overlooked by people due to the sheer number of warnings, such as placing many safety signs together, redundant or obvious warnings. Effectiveness can be reduced through conditions such as poor maintenance, placing a sign too high or low, or in a way that requires excessive effort to read.
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Communication | Video_feedback | Video feedback is the process that starts and continues when a video camera is pointed at its own playback video monitor. The loop delay from camera to display back to camera is at least one video frame time, due to the input and output scanning processes; it can be more if there is more processing in the loop.
First discovered shortly after Charlie Ginsburg invented the first video recorder for Ampex in 1956, video feedback was considered a nuisance and unwanted noise. Technicians and studio camera operators were chastised for allowing a video camera to see its own monitor as the overload of self-amplified video signal caused significant problems with the 1950s video pickup, often ruining the pickup. It could also cause screen burn-in on television screens and monitors of the time as well, by generating static brightly illuminated display patterns.In the 1960s early examples of video feedback art became introduced into the psychedelic art scene in New York City. Nam June Paik is often cited as the first video artist; he had clips of video feedback on display in New York City at the Greenwich Cafe in the mid 1960s.
Early video feedback works were produced by media artist experimenters on the East and West Coasts of North America in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Video feedback artists Steina and Woody Vasulka, with Richard Lowenberg and others, formed The Kitchen, which was located in the kitchen of a broken-down hotel in lower Manhattan; while Skip Sweeney and others founded Video Free America in San Francisco, to nurture their video art and feedback experiments.
David Sohn mentions video feedback in his 1970 book Film, the Creative Eye. This book was part of the base curriculum for Richard Lederer of St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire, when he made video feedback part of an English curriculum in his 1970s course Creative Eye in Film. Several students in this class participated regularly in the making and recording of video feedback. Sony had released the VuMax series of recording video cameras and manually "hand-looped" video tape decks by this time which did two things: it increased the resolution of the video image, which improved picture quality, and it made video tape recording technology available to the general public for the first time and allowed for such video experimentation by anyone.
During the 1980s and into the 1990s video technology became enhanced and evolved into high quality, high definition video recording. Michael C. Andersen generated the first known mathematical formula of the video feedback process, and he has also generated a Mendeleev's square to show the gradual progressive formulaic change of the video image as certain parameters are adjusted.
In the 1990s the rave scene and a social return to art of a more psychedelic nature brought back displays of video feedback on large disco dance floor video screens around the world. There are filters for Adobe Photoshop and non-linear video editors that often have video feedback as the filter description, or as a setting on a filter. These filter types either mimic or directly utilize video feedback for its result effect and can be recognized by its vortex, phantasmagoric manipulation of the original recorded image.
Many artists have used optical feedback. A famous example is Queen's music video for "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975). The effect (in this simple case) can be compared to looking at oneself between two mirrors.This technique—under the name "howl-around"—was employed for the opening titles sequence for the British science fiction series Doctor Who, which employed this technique from 1963 to 1973.Initially this was in black and white, and redone in 1967 to showcase the show's new 625-line broadcast resolution and feature the Doctor's face (Patrick Troughton at that time). It was redone again, in colour this time, in 1970. The next title sequence for the show, which debuted in 1973, abandoned this technique in favour of slit-scan photography.
An example of optical feedback in science is the optical cavity found in almost every laser, which typically consists of two mirrors between which light is amplified. In the late 1990s it was found that so-called unstable-cavity lasers produce light beams whose cross-section present a fractal pattern.Optical feedback in science is often closely related to video feedback, so an understanding of video feedback can be useful for other applications of optical feedback. Video feedback has been used to explain the essence of fractal structure of unstable-cavity laser beams.
Video feedback is also useful as an experimental-mathematics tool. Examples of its use include the making of Fractal patterns using multiple monitors, and multiple images produced using mirrors.
Optical feedback is also found in the image intensifier tube and its variants. Here the feedback is usually an undesirable phenomenon, where the light generated by the phosphor screen "feeds back" to the photocathode, causing the tube to oscillate, and ruining the image. This is typically suppressed by an aluminum reflective screen deposited on the back of the phosphor screen, or by incorporating a microchannel plate detector.
Optical feedback has been used experimentally in these tubes to amplify an image, in the manner of the cavity laser, but this technique has had limited use.
Optical feedback has also been experimented with as an electron source, since a photocathode-phosphor cell will 'latch' when triggered, providing a steady stream of electrons. See US Patent 4,531,122 for a typical application.
Douglas Hofstadter discusses video feedback in his book I Am a Strange Loop about the human mind and consciousness. He devotes a chapter to describing his experiments with video feedback.At some point during the session, I accidentally stuck my hand momentarily in front of the camera's lens. Of course the screen went all dark, but when I removed my hand, the previous pattern did not just pop right back onto the screen, as expected. Instead I saw a different pattern on the screen, but this pattern, unlike anything I'd seen before, was not stationary.
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Education | Beehive_Design_Collective | The Beehive Design Collective is a volunteer-driven non-profit art collective that uses graphical media as educational tools to communicate stories of resistance to corporate globalization. The purpose of the Machias, Maine-based group is to "cross-pollinate the grassroots" by creating collaborative, anti-copyright images that can be used as educational and organizing tools. The most recognizable of these images are large format pen and ink posters, which seek to provide a visual alternative to deconstruction of complicated social and political issues ranging from globalization, free trade, militarism, resource extraction, and biotechnology.
Their work has been included in curated exhibitions internationally, including at the Station Museum of Contemporary Art and Manifesta. One of their most well-known works, Mesoamérica Resiste, was a nine-year research project working directly with communities in Central America regarding effects of the Mesoamerica Project, and is typical of their community-engaged style of production.
The Collective creates graphic campaigns addressing diverse geo- and socio-political issues. The illustrations are informed and developed through extensive research. The work for the poster began in 2004, and by 2010 the group had distributed over 10,000 posters in the Americas. The most recent campaign in 2012 resulted from travel to Mexico and interviews of a broad spectrum of people. The “Mesoamerica Resiste” poster was used as their aid in this campaign and was unveiled in December 7, 2012 at the Machias Grange Hall. The group adheres to self-imposed rules during their campaign production, including absence of literal human depictions, use of cross-cultural imagery, and avoidance of cultural appropriation. The group bills its pieces as “portable murals,” using them as educational pieces while they travel around the world to do speaking engagements.The current trilogy in progress details globalization in the western hemisphere through a series of three graphics.
The Collective's educational work involves storytelling, international lecture circuits using giant reproductions of their posters as storytelling aids. "Picture lectures" feature a 30-feet high graphic and a 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) fabric flipbook/storybook. Audiences are led through a two-hour interactive, conversational presentation.One of the Beehive's goals in their graphic distribution is to have 50% of each print run distributed free to communities in the global south, including to groups working on the issues depicted in the prints. The remaining half are distributed internationally for donations. Posters are distributed at a wide range of venues, events, college campuses and academic events.All of the Beehive Collective's materials are distributed as anti-copyright, and their production is encouraged for non-profit, non-commercial use to assist in publications and productions. The black and white imagery is designed to facilitate ease of reproduction. The Beehive distributes free clip-art digital imagery via their website and graphic CD-ROMs distributed from their webstore.
Since the year 2000, the Collective has been engaged in the restoration of the Machias Valley Grange Hall in Machias, Maine, built in 1904. The restoration labor was sourced from visiting volunteers. The building was initially used as the Collective's center of its stone mosaics program.Annually, the Collective throws a no-cost dress-up dance party of immense proportions called the "Blackfly Ball". There are ongoing events such as a weekly Open Mic night and annual Halloween celebration.
In 2007, the Machias Valley Grange Hall was placed onto the National Register of Historic Places.
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Education | Campus_climate | Campus climate refers to current dimensions of climate in the campus community in higher education institutions. According to one definition offered by Jeni Hart and Jennifer Fellabaum, the dimensions of climate could refer to views, attitudes, psychology, behaviors, standards, perceptions and expectations. Campus community could refer to employees such as faculty, staff, administrators, and students, individually or as a group. Campus climate is often contrasted with campus culture. While climate and culture are sometimes used interchangeably, some authors mention overlaps while others define clear boundaries between the two.
Huston Smith (1955) wrote that the "atmosphere" and "environment" of a college affects everyone that is a part of it, making an educational institute more than a group of students, employees and buildings. Early attempts at measuring campus climate (culture, atmosphere, environment) include assessments and indexes created by John L. Holland & Alexander Astin (1961), and George G. Stern & C. Robert Pace (1962). More recently, climate has been understood to represent an "immeasurable construct". Hart & Fellabaum (2008) studied 118 campus climate papers and identified a number of definitions and measurement efforts.The major features of climate are (1) its primary emphasis on common participant views of a wide array of organizational phenomena that allow for comparison among groups or over time, (2) its focus on current patterns of beliefs and behaviors, and (3) its often ephemeral or malleable character
The collective, mutually shaping patterns of institutional history, mission, physical settings, norms, traditions, values, practices, beliefs, and assumptions that guide the behavior of individuals and groups in an institution of higher education which provide a frame of reference for interpreting the meanings of events and actions on and off campus
The current attitudes, behaviors, and standards and practices of employees and students of an institution [...] that concern the access for, inclusion of, and level of respect for individual and group needs, abilities, and potential
Climate is a broad concept however often used in a narrower and more concentrated manner. Conceptual framework for campus climate has developed to include the history of the educational institute, capacity to handle diversity, and psychological and behavioral climate.
Women colleges and universities around the world provide a friendly and "warm" to "neutral" climate. Campus climate at women's colleges for female faculty is more conducive than at coeducational institutions. The climate situation in coeducational settings for female faculty is similar to the situation for female students, say with regard to male privilege. Intellectual inbreeding in China, Japan and Korea is affected by the old boy networks; in this respect women colleges and universities provide opportunities which coeducational institutions do not.A study conducted at Federal University of Bahia observed that a number of campus climate variables affected students in general, and more importantly variables that went on to affect their interaction with their academic life and retention. This includes identity, teaching and faculty interactions.One of the first studies in India which included the aspect of campus climate was conducted in the University of Pune from 2013 onwards. The study found that faculty demographics and student demographics has changed unequally and this has a significant factor of campus climate. The study also revealed changing gender patterns which also have implications for campus climate. Changes in the gender gap include increased access to higher education for women from "relatively privileged backgrounds" and males from "disadvantaged backgrounds". This kind of changing social dynamic has resulted in observations such as men reporting experiencing more discrimination than women. Low empathy, low tolerance and low argumentation skills were observed.Gunuc & Artun et al. (2019) conducted a campus climate study of 26 universities in Turkey covering all the geographic regions of the country. The study found that the correlation between student engagement and campus climate along with certain other variables was significant.Climate for free speech in US campuses has been studied. More than half of college students self-censor themselves and there is a large variation between institutions with regard to free speech. There is a discussion about cancel culture and wokeness on the left. Campus climate is an important factor that affects decisions to seek out mental health services for mental health issues. | [
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Education | Classification_of_Instructional_Programs | The Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) is a taxonomy of academic disciplines at institutions of higher education in the United States and Canada.
The CIP was originally developed by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the United States Department of Education in 1980 and was revised in 1985, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. The 2020 edition (CIP 2020) is the fifth and current revision of the taxonomy. Instructional programs are classified by a six-digit CIP at the most granular level and are classified according to the two-digit and four-digit prefixes of the code. For example, "Forensic Science and Technology" has the six-digit code 43.0406, which places it in "Security Science and Technology" (43.04) and "Homeland Security, Law Enforcement, Firefighting and Related Protective Services" (two-digit CIP 43).
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Education | Content_similarity_detection | Plagiarism detection or content similarity detection is the process of locating instances of plagiarism or copyright infringement within a work or document. The widespread use of computers and the advent of the Internet have made it easier to plagiarize the work of others.
Detection of plagiarism can be undertaken in a variety of ways. Human detection is the most traditional form of identifying plagiarism from written work. This can be a lengthy and time-consuming task for the reader and can also result in inconsistencies in how plagiarism is identified within an organization. Text-matching software (TMS), which is also referred to as "plagiarism detection software" or "anti-plagiarism" software, has become widely available, in the form of both commercially available products as well as open-source software. TMS does not actually detect plagiarism per se, but instead finds specific passages of text in one document that match text in another document.
Computer-assisted plagiarism detection is an Information retrieval (IR) task supported by specialized IR systems, which is referred to as a plagiarism detection system (PDS) or document similarity detection system. A 2019 systematic literature review presents an overview of state-of-the-art plagiarism detection methods.Systems for text similarity detection implement one of two generic detection approaches, one being external, the other being intrinsic.External detection systems compare a suspicious document with a reference collection, which is a set of documents assumed to be genuine.
Based on a chosen document model and predefined similarity criteria, the detection task is to retrieve all documents that contain text that is similar to a degree above a chosen threshold to text in the suspicious document.
Intrinsic PDSes solely analyze the text to be evaluated without performing comparisons to external documents. This approach aims to recognize changes in the unique writing style of an author as an indicator for potential plagiarism.
PDSes are not capable of reliably identifying plagiarism without human judgment. Similarities and writing style features are computed with the help of predefined document models and might represent false positives.
A study was conducted to test the effectiveness of similarity detection software in a higher education setting. One part of the study assigned one group of students to write a paper. These students were first educated about plagiarism and informed that their work was to be run through a content similarity detection system. A second group of students was assigned to write a paper without any information about plagiarism. The researchers expected to find lower rates in group one but found roughly the same rates of plagiarism in both groups.The figure below represents a classification of all detection approaches currently in use for computer-assisted content similarity detection. The approaches are characterized by the type of similarity assessment they undertake: global or local. Global similarity assessment approaches use the characteristics taken from larger parts of the text or the document as a whole to compute similarity, while local methods only examine pre-selected text segments as input.Fingerprinting is currently the most widely applied approach to content similarity detection. This method forms representative digests of documents by selecting a set of multiple substrings (n-grams) from them. The sets represent the fingerprints and their elements are called minutiae.A suspicious document is checked for plagiarism by computing its fingerprint and querying minutiae with a precomputed index of fingerprints for all documents of a reference collection. Minutiae matching with those of other documents indicate shared text segments and suggest potential plagiarism if they exceed a chosen similarity threshold. Computational resources and time are limiting factors to fingerprinting, which is why this method typically only compares a subset of minutiae to speed up the computation and allow for checks in very large collection, such as the Internet.
String matching is a prevalent approach used in computer science. When applied to the problem of plagiarism detection, documents are compared for verbatim text overlaps. Numerous methods have been proposed to tackle this task, of which some have been adapted to external plagiarism detection. Checking a suspicious document in this setting requires the computation and storage of efficiently comparable representations for all documents in the reference collection to compare them pairwise. Generally, suffix document models, such as suffix trees or suffix vectors, have been used for this task. Nonetheless, substring matching remains computationally expensive, which makes it a non-viable solution for checking large collections of documents.Bag of words analysis represents the adoption of vector space retrieval, a traditional IR concept, to the domain of content similarity detection. Documents are represented as one or multiple vectors, e.g. for different document parts, which are used for pair wise similarity computations. Similarity computation may then rely on the traditional cosine similarity measure, or on more sophisticated similarity measures.Citation-based plagiarism detection (CbPD) relies on citation analysis, and is the only approach to plagiarism detection that does not rely on the textual similarity. CbPD examines the citation and reference information in texts to identify similar patterns in the citation sequences. As such, this approach is suitable for scientific texts, or other academic documents that contain citations. Citation analysis to detect plagiarism is a relatively young concept. It has not been adopted by commercial software, but a first prototype of a citation-based plagiarism detection system exists. Similar order and proximity of citations in the examined documents are the main criteria used to compute citation pattern similarities. Citation patterns represent subsequences non-exclusively containing citations shared by the documents compared. Factors, including the absolute number or relative fraction of shared citations in the pattern, as well as the probability that citations co-occur in a document are also considered to quantify the patterns' degree of similarity.Stylometry subsumes statistical methods for quantifying an author's unique writing style and is mainly used for authorship attribution or intrinsic plagiarism detection. Detecting plagiarism by authorship attribution requires checking whether the writing style of the suspicious document, which is written supposedly by a certain author, matches with that of a corpus of documents written by the same author. Intrinsic plagiarism detection, on the other hand, uncovers plagiarism based on internal evidences in the suspicious document without comparing it with other documents. This is performed by constructing and comparing stylometric models for different text segments of the suspicious document, and passages that are stylistically different from others are marked as potentially plagiarized/infringed. Although they are simple to extract, character n-grams are proven to be among the best stylometric features for intrinsic plagiarism detection.More recent approaches to assess content similarity using neural networks have achieved significantly greater accuracy, but come at great computational cost. Traditional neural network approaches embed both pieces of content into semantic vector embeddings to calculate their similarity, which is often their cosine similarity. More advanced methods perform end-to-end prediction of similarity or classifications using the Transformer architecture. Paraphrase detection particularly benefits from highly parameterized pre-trained models.Comparative evaluations of content similarity detection systems indicate that their performance depends on the type of plagiarism present (see figure). Except for citation pattern analysis, all detection approaches rely on textual similarity. It is therefore symptomatic that detection accuracy decreases the more plagiarism cases are obfuscated.Literal copies, a.k.a. copy and paste plagiarism or blatant copyright infringement, or modestly disguised plagiarism cases can be detected with high accuracy by current external PDS if the source is accessible to the software. In particular, substring matching procedures achieve good performance for copy and paste plagiarism, since they commonly use lossless document models, such as suffix trees. The performance of systems using fingerprinting or bag of words analysis in detecting copies depends on the information loss incurred by the document model used. By applying flexible chunking and selection strategies, they are better capable of detecting moderate forms of disguised plagiarism when compared to substring matching procedures.
Intrinsic plagiarism detection using stylometry can overcome the boundaries of textual similarity to some extent by comparing linguistic similarity. Given that the stylistic differences between plagiarized and original segments are significant and can be identified reliably, stylometry can help in identifying disguised and paraphrased plagiarism. Stylometric comparisons are likely to fail in cases where segments are strongly paraphrased to the point where they more closely resemble the personal writing style of the plagiarist or if a text was compiled by multiple authors. The results of the International Competitions on Plagiarism Detection held in 2009, 2010 and 2011, as well as experiments performed by Stein, indicate that stylometric analysis seems to work reliably only for document lengths of several thousand or tens of thousands of words, which limits the applicability of the method to computer-assisted plagiarism detection settings.
An increasing amount of research is performed on methods and systems capable of detecting translated plagiarism. Currently, cross-language plagiarism detection (CLPD) is not viewed as a mature technology and respective systems have not been able to achieve satisfying detection results in practice.
Citation-based plagiarism detection using citation pattern analysis is capable of identifying stronger paraphrases and translations with higher success rates when compared to other detection approaches, because it is independent of textual characteristics. However, since citation-pattern analysis depends on the availability of sufficient citation information, it is limited to academic texts. It remains inferior to text-based approaches in detecting shorter plagiarized passages, which are typical for cases of copy-and-paste or shake-and-paste plagiarism; the latter refers to mixing slightly altered fragments from different sources.
The design of content similarity detection software for use with text documents is characterized by a number of factors:Most large-scale plagiarism detection systems use large, internal databases (in addition to other resources) that grow with each additional document submitted for analysis. However, this feature is considered by some as a violation of student copyright.
Plagiarism in computer source code is also frequent, and requires different tools than those used for text comparisons in document. Significant research has been dedicated to academic source-code plagiarism.A distinctive aspect of source-code plagiarism is that there are no essay mills, such as can be found in traditional plagiarism. Since most programming assignments expect students to write programs with very specific requirements, it is very difficult to find existing programs that already meet them. Since integrating external code is often harder than writing it from scratch, most plagiarizing students choose to do so from their peers.
According to Roy and Cordy, source-code similarity detection algorithms can be classified as based on either
Strings : look for exact textual matches of segments, for instance five-word runs. Fast, but can be confused by renaming identifiers.
Tokens : as with strings, but using a lexer to convert the program into tokens first. This discards whitespace, comments, and identifier names, making the system more robust against simple text replacements. Most academic plagiarism detection systems work at this level, using different algorithms to measure the similarity between token sequences.
Parse Trees : build and compare parse trees. This allows higher-level similarities to be detected. For instance, tree comparison can normalize conditional statements, and detect equivalent constructs as similar to each other.
Program Dependency Graphs (PDGs) : a PDG captures the actual flow of control in a program, and allows much higher-level equivalences to be located, at a greater expense in complexity and calculation time.
Metrics : metrics capture 'scores' of code segments according to certain criteria; for instance, "the number of loops and conditionals", or "the number of different variables used". Metrics are simple to calculate and can be compared quickly, but can also lead to false positives: two fragments with the same scores on a set of metrics may do entirely different things.
Hybrid approaches : for instance, parse trees + suffix trees can combine the detection capability of parse trees with the speed afforded by suffix trees, a type of string-matching data structure.
The previous classification was developed for code refactoring, and not for academic plagiarism detection (an important goal of refactoring is to avoid duplicate code, referred to as code clones in the literature). The above approaches are effective against different levels of similarity; low-level similarity refers to identical text, while high-level similarity can be due to similar specifications. In an academic setting, when all students are expected to code to the same specifications, functionally equivalent code (with high-level similarity) is entirely expected, and only low-level similarity is considered as proof of cheating.
Difference between Plagiarism and Copyright
Plagiarism and copyright are essential concepts in academic and creative writing that writers, researchers, and students have to understand. Although they may sound similar, they are not; different strategies can be used to address each of them.
Various complications have been documented with the use of text-matching software when used for plagiarism detection. One of the more prevalent concerns documented centers on the issue of intellectual property rights. The basic argument is that materials must be added to a database in order for the TMS to effectively determine a match, but adding users' materials to such a database may infringe on their intellectual property rights. The issue has been raised in a number of court cases. An additional complication with the use of TMS is that the software finds only precise matches to other text. It does not pick up poorly paraphrased work, for example, or the practice of plagiarizing by use of sufficient word substitutions to elude detection software, which is known as rogeting. It also cannot evaluate whether the paraphrase genuinely reflects an original understanding or is an attempt to bypass detection.
Another complication with TMS is its tendency to flag much more content than necessary, including legitimate citations and paraphrasing, making it difficult to find real cases of plagiarism. This issue arises because TMS algorithms mainly look at surface-level text similarities without considering the context of the writing. Educators have raised concerns that reliance on TMS may shift focus away from teaching proper citation and writing skills, and may create an oversimplified view of plagiarism that disregards the nuances of student writing. As a result, scholars argue that these false positives can cause fear in students and discourage them from using their authentic voice.
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Education | Field_trip | A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of associated peers, such as coworkers or school students, to a place away from their normal environment for the purpose of education or leisure, either within their country or abroad.
When arranged by a school administration for students, it is also known as school trip in the United Kingdom, Australia, Kenya, New Zealand and Bangladesh, and school tour in Ireland.
A 2022 study, which used randomized controlled trial data, found that culturally enriching field trips led students to show a greater interest in arts, greater tolerance for people with different views, and boosted their educational outcomes.
The purpose of the field trip is usually observation for education, non-experimental research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities, such as going camping with teachers and their classmates. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect samples. It is seen that more-advantaged children may have already experienced cultural institutions outside of school, and field trips provide common ground between more-advantaged and less-advantaged children to share the same cultural experiences.Field trips often involve three steps: preparation, activities and follow-up activity. Preparation applies to both the students and the teachers. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip. Activities on the field trips often include: lectures, tours, worksheets, videos and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions in the classroom once the field trip is completed.
In Western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on school trips to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips.
Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as fire stations and hospitals, government agencies, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums and factories. Field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children and can benefit the community if they include some type of community service. Field trips also let students take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands-on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have an interactive display that allows children to touch plants or animals.
Today, culturally enriching field trips are in decline. Museums across the United States report a steep drop in school tours. For example, the Field Museum in Chicago at one time welcomed more than 300,000 students every year. Recently, the number is below 200,000. Between 2002 and 2007, Cincinnati arts organizations saw a 30 percent decrease in student attendance. A survey by the American Association of School Administrators found that more than half of schools eliminated planned field trips in 2010:11.
A variation on the field trip is the "site-based program" or "site-school" model, where a class temporarily relocates to a non-school location for an entire week to take advantage of the resources on the site. As with a multi-day field trip, appropriate overnight camping or lodging arrangements are often made to accommodate the experience. The approach was first developed at the Calgary Zoo in Alberta, Canada in 1993, and "Zoo School" was inaugurated in 1994. The Calgary Board of Education then approached the Glenbow Museum and Archives to create a "Museum School" in 1995 followed by the Calgary Science Centre (1996), the University of Calgary (1996), Canada Olympic Park (1997), the Inglewood Bird Sanctuary (1998), Calgary City Hall (2000), Cross Conservation Area (2000), the Calgary Stampede (2002), the Calgary Aero-Space Museum (2005), and the Fire Training Academy (2008). One of the newer schools in Calgary is Tinker School and Social Enterprise School as STEM Learning Lab (2018) The model spread across Alberta (with 15 sites in Edmonton alone), throughout Canada and in the United States. Global coordination of the model is through the "Beyond the Classroom Network".In Europe, School Trip, a 2002 German-Polish film, describes the German students' trip to Poland during the summer.In Japan, in addition to the one-day field trip, the school trip, called shūgaku ryokō (Japanese: 修学旅行, literally "learning journey"), has a history since 1886, and is now part of the middle school and high school curriculum, with all students participating in such a program. The trip is usually longer than several days, such as a week or several weeks long. The typical locations visited within Japan are regions of national or historical significance, such as ancient capitals of Kyoto and Nara, Nagasaki, for its experience with nuclear weapons and historical significance as the sole international port during the country's 17th:19th century isolationist foreign policy Japanese: 鎖国, romanized: sakoku (さこく) and Nikkō 日光, popular onsen spa town renowned for its beauty. Travelling abroad is occasionally chosen as an option by some schools.In other Asian regions/countries such as South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, the school trip, when arranged, tends to become a voluntary part of the school curriculum. When Japan was selected, the Japanese government waived the entry visa.
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Education | Further_and_Higher_Education_Act_1992 | The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 made changes in the funding and administration of further education and higher education within England and Wales, with consequential effects on associated matters in Scotland which had previously been governed by the same legislation as England and Wales. It was introduced during the First Major ministry.
The most visible result was to allow thirty-five polytechnics to become universities (often referred to as the "new universities" or "post-1992 universities"). A goal of the act was to end the distinction : known as the "binary divide" : between colleges and universities.
In addition, the act created bodies to fund higher education in England—HEFCE—and further education—FEFC. Universities in Scotland and Wales which had previously been funded by the UK-wide Universities Funding Council were the subject of other acts that created higher education funding councils in each country. The act also removed colleges of further education from local government control, and created quality assessment arrangements.
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Education | Hospitality_management_studies | Hospitality Management and Tourism is the study of the hospitality industry. A degree in the subject may be awarded either by a university college dedicated to the studies of hospitality management or a business school with a relevant department. Degrees in hospitality management may also be referred to as hotel management, hotel and tourism management, or hotel administration. Degrees conferred in this academic field include BA, Bachelor of Business Administration, BS, BASc, B.Voc, MS, MBA, Bachelor of Hospitality Management, Master of Management, PhD and short term course. Hospitality management covers hotels, restaurants, cruise ships, amusement parks, destination marketing organizations, convention centers, country clubs and many more.
In the US, hospitality and tourism management curricula follow similar core subject applications to that of a business degree, but with a focus on tourism development and hospitality management. Core subject areas include accounting, administration, entrepreneurship, finance, information systems, marketing, human resource management, public relations, strategy, quantitative methods, and sectoral studies in the various areas of hospitality business. Some programs in India also include culinary training.Many schools have departments that specifically give degrees in the hospitality field.The QS World University Rankings by Subject are based upon academic reputation, employer reputation and research impact. These results are reviewed and evaluated every year by academics and industry professionals to ensure consistent quality over time. | [
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Education | SESI_Mathematics | SESI Mathematics is a project developed by FIRJAN System with the aim of improving the teaching of math for high school students. The program consists of a series of initiatives, from the organization of training courses for teachers and distribution of educational kits, to the providing of physical spaces for students of SESI Rio and SENAI Rio network, as well as for those from selected state schools. Although the project has the pretension of being expanded to other Brazilian states, nowadays it only operates in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia.
SESI Mathematics was launched in 2012 by SESI Rio. The program counted on an initial investment of R$ 10 million and was created based on the Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional (read "Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education"), motivated by the poor performance of Brazil in national and international reviews, as well as in researches that indicated a lack of skilled people to work in areas related to the exact sciences, which require mastery of mathematics.In 2013, an agreement was signed between SESI Bahia and the Government of Bahia State to extend the project to the schools of the state of Bahia. In the same year, the project won the Idea Brasil award in the "Design Strategy" category.
The project's initiatives make use of online interactive technologies such as educational games as a way to encourage the teaching of students.The games are developed by the English company Mangahigh.
In partnership with the Instituto Nacional de Matemática Pura e Aplicada (read "National Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics"), one of the initiatives of the project is the construction of a public space dedicated to temporary and permanent exhibitions of themes related to mathematics, among other activities. The space will be located at Barra da Tijuca (Rio de Janeiro, Brasil) and is scheduled to open in 2015. | [
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Education | Sophomore | In the United States, a sophomore ( or ) is a person in the second year at an educational institution; usually at a secondary school or at the college and university level, but also in other forms of post-secondary educational institutions. In high school a sophomore is equivalent to a tenth grade or Class-10 student.
In sports, sophomore may also refer to a professional athlete in their second season. In entertainment, television series in their second season may be referred to as sophomore shows, while actors and musicians experiencing their second major success may be referred to as sophomore artists.
The 10th grade is the second year of a student's high school period (usually aged 15:16) and is referred to as sophomore year, so in a four year course the stages are freshman, sophomore, junior and senior.In How to Read a Book, the Aristotelean philosopher and founder of the "Great Books of the Western World" program Mortimer Adler says, "There have always been literate ignoramuses, who have read too widely, and not well. The Greeks had a name for such a mixture of learning and folly which might be applied to the bookish but poorly read of all ages. They are all 'sophomores'." This oxymoron points at the Greek words σοφός ('wise') and μωρός ('fool').
High-school sophomores are expected to begin preparing for the college application process, including increasing and focusing their extracurricular activities. Students at this level are also considered to be developing greater ability for abstract thinking.
The term sophomore is also used to refer to a student in the second year of college or university studies in the United States; typically a college sophomore is 19 to 20 years old. Sophomores generally work on completing general education requirements and might declare their major if they are allowed. College sophomores are also advised to begin thinking of career options and to get involved in volunteering or social organizations on or near campus. | [
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Education | Validation_of_foreign_studies_and_degrees | The Validation or recognition of foreign studies and degrees is the process whereby a competent authority in one country formally recognises the value of a qualification from a foreign country. This can entail total or partial validation of foreign university and non-university studies, degrees and other qualifications. Particularly within Europe, this is covered by a number of international conventions and agreements.
The first generation of recognition conventions was developed under the auspices of UNESCO in the 1970s and 1980s, with conventions covering Latin America and the Caribbean (1974), the Mediterranean (1976), the Arab States (1978), Europe (1979), Africa (1981), and Asia and the Pacific (1983). These conventions are specifically concerned with recognition of qualifications rather than equivalence : there is no attempt to build frameworks with automatic equivalence of qualifications. This first generation of conventions has been built on by second generation conventions, starting with Lisbon (1997) covering Europe and now including the Asia-Pacific region (Tokyo, 2011) and Africa (Addis Ababa, 2014). A major change with the more recent conventions is a shift in favour of recognition, with the burden being to show substantial differences.
The Lisbon Convention entered into force in 1999, the Tokyo Convention in 2018 and the Addis Ababa Convention in 2019. A new regional convention covering Latin America and the Caribbean was adopted in Buenos Aires in 2019 but has not, as of February 2020, entered into force. The first recognition treaty with a global scope, the Global Convention on the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications, was adopted by the 40th session of UNESCO's General Conference in November 2019.
Mutual recognition of higher education qualifications is enshrined in the UNESCO/Council of Europe Lisbon Recognition Convention, which covers (as of February 2017) all Council of Europe members except Monaco and Greece, as well as Australia, Belarus, Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrghyz Republic, New Zealand and Tajikistan. The convention has also been signed, but not ratified, by Canada and the United States. Within these countries, qualifications must be recognised as equivalent unless proven otherwise, and assessments must be carried out fairly and within a reasonable time.The convention established the European Network of Information Centres (ENIC), supplementing and expanding the National Academic Recognition Information Centre (NARIC) network established by the European Union in 1984. The ENIC-NARIC network comprises national centres for validation of degrees in member countries.
The European Higher Education Area consists (as of February 2017) of 48 national members (who must be signatories of the European Cultural Convention) and the European Union. It aims to promote mutual recognition of academic qualifications through alignment of national qualifications frameworks, via the Bologna Process's short cycle, first cycle (bachelor's degree), second cycle (master's degree) and third cycle (doctoral degree) framework, the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, and the use of Diploma Supplements.The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is an initiative of the European Commission to provide a "translation" for national qualifications frameworks at all levels (not just higher education) and so support mobility of workers within the European Union. It originally covered the 28 EU states plus Lichtenstein and Norway, but has been opened to non-EU states, with Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong currently going through referencing of their national frameworks to the EQF.Mutual recognition of professional qualifications is regulated by European Union Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on the recognition of professional qualifications, modified by Council Directive 2006/100/EC.Procedure:
The competent authority of the host Member State shall acknowledge receipt of the application within one month of receipt and inform the applicant of any missing document.
The procedure for examining an application for authorisation to practise a regulated profession must be completed as quickly as possible and lead to a duly substantiated decision by the competent authority in the host Member State in any case within three months after the date on which the applicant's complete file was submitted. However, this deadline may be extended by one month in certain cases.
The decision, or failure to reach a decision within the deadline, shall be subject to appeal under national law.
The Norwegian governmental authority for accreditation of foreign education of Norwegian citizens and foreigners, NOKUT, has sole power in these matters.The total validation of foreign university studies and degrees in the Spanish system consists of a complete recognition of said studies and degrees in that system. The Spanish Ministry of Education and Science is in charge of the procedure.The academic degrees, diplomas or certificates on pharmaceutical or medical specialities which were obtained in a foreign country and which qualify the applicant in order to carry out the relevant professions in those countries can be validated as their official equivalents in the Spanish system.
The Ministry of Education and Science is only responsible for the total validation of a foreign university degree for its Spanish equivalent. Any other applications for the partial validation of studies carried out in a foreign country in order to pursue a university study course in Spain must be submitted to the Spanish university itself.
The US government does not have a specified agency for recognition and validation of foreign qualifications. Instead, responsibility falls on universities and colleges to determine the equivalence for students they admit, on employers for people they employ and on state licensing board for entry into regulated professions. These bodies may carry out assessment themselves, or contract a private credential evaluation service.Credential evaluation is also important for those seeking an H-1B visa, which requires a bachelor's degree or equivalent, and for some categories of permanent resident. For H-1Bs, but not permanent resident applications, experience can be counted towards equivalence at the rate of three years of experience equals one year of education.
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Energy | Advanced_thermal_recycling_system | An advanced thermal recycling system (or an ATR system) is the commercial brand name of the waste-to-energy incineration offering by Klean Power, which has been implemented in a single plant in Germany in 1999. WtE facilities such as the ATR transforms municipal solid waste (MSW) into electricity or steam for district heating or industrial customers. The combustion bottom ash, and the combustion fly ash, along with the air pollution control system fly ash, are treated to produce products that can be beneficially reused. Specifically, ATR systems consist of the following:
Solid waste combustion, boiler and combustion control system, energy recovery and air pollution control equipment;
Combustion bottom ash and fly ash treatment systems that produce commercially reusable products; and
An optional pre-processing system to recover recyclable materials contained in the MSW delivered to the facility before the MSW enters the thermal processing area of the facility.
One commercially operating ATR facility has been built so far. It is the Müllverwertung Rugenberger Damm WtE plant in Hamburg, Germany, commissioned in 1999. The German Green Party has endorsed the specific features of this facility in its "Concept 2020" initiative to cease all landfilling of waste by 2020 as an essential part of an integrated waste management system achieving the highest standards in the energy-from-waste industry. No landfilling of unprocessed waste has been allowed in Germany since 2005.Overhead refuse cranes are used to hold approximately five tons of garbage each. The waste is then mixed in the bunker to create a homogeneous mixture to ensure that the bottom ash byproduct has good combustion, and low carbon content. These cranes then deliver the mixed waste into the feeding hopper, which leads down onto stoker grates. These grates control the rate at which the waste travels through the boiler. The heat ignites the trash as it moves along the forward feeding grates until only the byproduct bottom ash remains at the end of the grate. Each combustion line feeds a boiler that operates above 1,560 °F (850 °C) for two seconds. The temperature in the combustion zone is measured through acoustic monitoring. A computer controls the temperature, the grate speed, the amount of air used, and all other aspects of the process that enable complete combustion and minimization of emissions.
Maintaining the furnace's high temperature is essential to rid the waste and the resulting combustion gases of complex organic compounds such as dioxins and furans. To prevent the reformulation of pollutants, fly ash is separated from the flue gas downstream of the superheaters to reduce the fly ash content, which could act as a catalyst in the critical reformulation temperature range of 600 to 400 °F (316 to 204 °C). At the exit of the boiler, the flue gas is cooled down to a level of 340 °F (171 °C).
As the waste is combusted, heat is released in the boiler. This heat produces high-pressure, high-temperature steam, which generates electrical energy when passed through a turbine generator. The electricity is fed into the public power grid or sold directly to a customer. The steam can also be exported directly for use in district heating or industrial processes.
Each unit has an independent air pollution control system. Flue gas cleaning begins in the boiler, where oxides of nitrogen are reduced by injecting ammonia water into the combustion chamber. Lightly loaded absorbents (activated carbon from the second bag house) are injected into the flue gas downstream of the first bag house to separate any contaminants that have reformed (such as organic compounds), any condensed heavy metals, salts and other gaseous contaminants, as well as residue fly ash.
The first baghouse makes it possible to produce reusable by-products such as hydrochloric acid and gypsum from the consecutive air pollution control process steps. Acid gases are removed from the flue gases by passing through a two-stage scrubber to remove acid components, especially halogen compounds such as hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid. A counter-flow neutral scrubber follows, using a lime slurry to remove sulphur oxides. The pollutant gases are either dissolved in water droplets (acids) or bound as calcium salts and thereby removed from the flue gas. A second baghouse acts as a polishing filter to capture any remaining aerosols, organic compounds and heavy metals, which thereby are reduced to levels usually below detection.
Following combustion, the material left consists of the non-combustible components of the waste and the inert materials produced during combustion. This is known as bottom ash. The bottom ash is washed to eliminate soluble salts. Iron scrap and non-ferrous metals such as aluminium, copper and brass are separated and sold in secondary metals markets. The bottom ash is then screened, crushed and sold for use as a construction material.
Gypsum is created when the oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3) are separated by the single stage scrubber. It is purified, then sold to the construction industry.
The acid scrubbing process in the flue gas treatment system also produces a raw hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 10% to 12%. The acid is distilled (rectified) to yield commercial-grade (30% concentration) hydrochloric acid.
Fly ash, separated in the boiler and baghouses and constituting up to 5% by weight of the combusted MSW, is treated to recover metals and minerals for reuse, resulting in an overall ATR process landfill diversion rate of approximately 98.5%.
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"mentions": [
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Energy | Anne_Korin | Anne Korin is co-director of the Institute for the Analysis of Global Security, a think tank focused on energy and security, and chairs the Set America Free Coalition, an alliance of national security, environmental, labor and religious groups promoting ways to reduce America's dependence on foreign oil. She is co-author of Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century (2009) and Turning Oil into Salt (2009). She appears in the media frequently and has written articles for Foreign Affairs, MIT Innovations, The American Interest and National Review.
In May 2008, Korin testified before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs.
Korin is adviser to the United States Energy Security Council.
In July 2023, Gal Luft, with whom Korin co-authored Turning Oil into Salt, and Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century, along with several other books and articles, was indicted in the United States for acting as unregistered foreign agent, trafficking in arms, violating U.S. sanctions against Iran, and making false statements to federal Agents. Korin and Luft are co-directors of The Institute for the Analysis of Global Security.
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Energy | Association_for_Decentralised_Energy | The Association for Decentralised Energy (ADE), formerly the Combined Heat and Power Association, is an advocate of an integrated approach to delivering energy locally. The ADE was founded in 1967 as the District Heating Association, becoming the Combined Heat and Power Association in 1983, and was then renamed to the Association for Decentralised Energy on 12 January 2015. The ADE has over 100 members.
The Association merged with the Association for the Conservation of Energy in 2018.
The ADE acts as an advocate for its members by engaging with Government and key decision makers to support cost effective and efficient solutions to industry, businesses and householders by:
Developing a policy which puts the energy user's needs first
Delivering a local, low carbon energy system at lowest cost
Ensuring an understanding of heat, which makes up half of our energy use
Taking an integrated and 'systems thinking' approach
Helping users manage energy demand to limit the need for new generation capacity
Strengthening the sector's reputation through industry standards and best practice
The Association also provide secretariat for the Independent Heat Customer Protection Scheme.
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Energy | Electric_power_industry | The electric power industry covers the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electric power to the general public and industry. The commercial distribution of electric power started in 1882 when electricity was produced for electric lighting. In the 1880s and 1890s, growing economic and safety concerns lead to the regulation of the industry. What was once an expensive novelty limited to the most densely populated areas, reliable and economical electric power has become an essential aspect for normal operation of all elements of developed economies.
By the middle of the 20th century, electricity was seen as a "natural monopoly", only efficient if a restricted number of organizations participated in the market; in some areas, vertically-integrated companies provide all stages from generation to retail, and only governmental supervision regulated the rate of return and cost structure.
Since the 1990s, many regions have broken up the generation and distribution of electric power. While such markets can be abusively manipulated with consequent adverse price and reliability impact to consumers, generally competitive production of electrical energy leads to worthwhile improvements in efficiency. However, transmission and distribution are harder problems since returns on investment are not as easy to find.
Although electricity had been known to be produced as a result of the chemical reactions that take place in an electrolytic cell since Alessandro Volta developed the voltaic pile in 1800, its production by this means was, and still is, expensive. In 1831, Michael Faraday devised a machine that generated electricity from rotary motion, but it took almost 50 years for the technology to reach a commercially viable stage. In 1878, in the United States, Thomas Edison developed and sold a commercially viable replacement for gas lighting and heating using locally generated and distributed direct current electricity.Robert Hammond, in December 1881, demonstrated the new electric light in the Sussex town of Brighton in the UK for a trial period. The ensuing success of this installation enabled Hammond to put this venture on both a commercial and legal footing, as a number of shop owners wanted to use the new electric light. Thus the Hammond Electricity Supply Co. was launched.
In early 1882, Edison opened the world's first steam-powered electricity generating station at Holborn Viaduct in London, where he had entered into an agreement with the City Corporation for a period of three months to provide street lighting. In time he had supplied a number of local consumers with electric light. The method of supply was direct current (DC). Whilst the Godalming and the 1882 Holborn Viaduct Scheme closed after a few years the Brighton Scheme continued on, and supply was in 1887 made available for 24 hours per day.
It was later on in the year in September 1882 that Edison opened the Pearl Street Power Station in New York City and again it was a DC supply. It was for this reason that the generation was close to or on the consumer's premises as Edison had no means of voltage conversion. The voltage chosen for any electrical system is a compromise. For a given amount of power transmitted, increasing the voltage reduces the current and therefore reduces the required wire thickness. Unfortunately it also increases the danger from direct contact and increases the required insulation thickness. Furthermore, some load types were difficult or impossible to make work with higher voltages. The overall effect was that Edison's system required power stations to be within a mile of the consumers. While this could work in city centres, it would be unable to economically supply suburbs with power.
The mid to late 1880s saw the introduction of alternating current (AC) systems in Europe and the U.S. AC power had an advantage in that transformers, installed at power stations, could be used to raise the voltage from the generators, and transformers at local substations could reduce voltage to supply loads. Increasing the voltage reduced the current in the transmission and distribution lines and hence the size of conductors and distribution losses. This made it more economical to distribute power over long distances. Generators (such as hydroelectric sites) could be located far from the loads. AC and DC competed for a while, during a period called the war of the currents. The DC system was able to claim slightly greater safety, but this difference was not great enough to overwhelm the enormous technical and economic advantages of alternating current which eventually won out.
The AC power system used today developed rapidly, backed by industrialists such as George Westinghouse with Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Galileo Ferraris, Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, Lucien Gaulard, John Dixon Gibbs, Carl Wilhelm Siemens, William Stanley Jr., Nikola Tesla, and others contributed to this field.
Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics to the control and conversion of electric power. Power electronics started with the development of the mercury arc rectifier in 1902, used to convert AC into DC. From the 1920s on, research continued on applying thyratrons and grid-controlled mercury arc valves to power transmission. Grading electrodes made them suitable for high voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission. In 1933, selenium rectifiers were invented. Transistor technology dates back to 1947, with the invention of the point-contact transistor, which was followed by the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in 1948. By the 1950s, higher power semiconductor diodes became available and started replacing vacuum tubes. In 1956, the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) was introduced, increasing the range of power electronic applications.
A breakthrough in power electronics came with the invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) in 1959. Generations of MOSFETs enabled power designers to achieve performance and density levels not possible with bipolar transistors. In 1969, Hitachi introduced the first vertical power MOSFET, which would later be known as the VMOS (V-groove MOSFET). The power MOSFET has since become the most common power device in the world, due to its low gate drive power, fast switching speed, easy advanced paralleling capability, wide bandwidth, ruggedness, easy drive, simple biasing, ease of application, and ease of repair.
While HVDC is increasingly being used to transmit large quantities of electricity over long distances or to connect adjacent asynchronous power systems, the bulk of electricity generation, transmission, distribution and retailing takes place using alternating current.
The electric power industry is commonly split up into four processes. These are electricity generation such as a power station, electric power transmission, electricity distribution and electricity retailing. In many countries, electric power companies own the whole infrastructure from generating stations to transmission and distribution infrastructure. For this reason, electric power is viewed as a natural monopoly. The industry is generally heavily regulated, often with price controls and is frequently government-owned and operated. However, the modern trend has been growing deregulation in at least the latter two processes.The nature and state of market reform of the electricity market often determines whether electric companies are able to be involved in just some of these processes without having to own the entire infrastructure, or citizens choose which components of infrastructure to patronise. In countries where electricity provision is deregulated, end-users of electricity may opt for more costly green electricity.
Generation is the conversion of some primary energy source into electric power suitable for commercial use on an electrical grid. Most commercial electric power is produced by rotating electrical machines, "generators", which move conductors through a magnetic field to produce electric current. The generator is rotated by some other prime mover machine; in typical grid-connected generators this is a steam turbine, a gas turbine, or a hydraulic turbine. Primary energy sources for these machine are often fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear fission, geothermal steam, or falling water. Renewable sources such as wind and solar energy are increasingly of commercial importance.Since electrical generation must be closely matched with electrical consumption, enough generation capacity must be installed to meet peak demands. At the same time, primary energy sources must be selected to minimize the cost of produced electrical energy. Generally the lowest-incremental-cost source of electrical energy will be the next unit connected to meet rising demand. Electrical generators have automatic controls to regulate the power fed into the electrical transmission system, adjusting generator output moment by moment to balance with electrical demand. For a large grid with scores or hundreds of generators connected and thousands of loads, management of stable generator supply is a problem with significant challenges, to meet economic, environmental and reliability requirements. For example, low-incremental-cost generation sources such as nuclear power plants may be run continually to meet the average "base load" of the connected system, whereas more costly peaking power plants such as natural gas turbines may be run for brief times during the day to meet peak loads. Alternatively, load management strategies may encourage more even demand for electrical power and reduce costly peaks. Designated generator units for a particular electrical grid may be run at partial output only, to provide "spinning reserve" for sudden increases in demand or faults with other generating units.
In addition to electrical power production, electrical generation units may provide other ancillary services to the electrical grid, such as frequency control, reactive power, and black start of a collapsed power grid. These ancillary services may be commercially valuable when the generation, transmission, and distribution electrical companies are separate commercial entities.
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia and New Zealand, the network is known as the National Grid.A wide area synchronous grid, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects many generators delivering AC power with the same relative frequency numerous consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid). In Europe one large grid connects most of continental Europe.
Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.
Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment or household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level.Electricity retailing is the final sale of electricity from generation to the end-use consumer.The organization of the electrical sector of a country or region varies depending on the economic system of the country. In some places, all electric power generation, transmission and distribution is provided by a government controlled organization. Other regions have private or investor-owned utility companies, city or municipally owned companies, cooperative companies owned by their own customers, or combinations. Generation, transmission and distribution may be offered by a single company, or different organizations may provide each of these portions of the system.Not everyone has access to grid electricity. About 840 million people (mostly in Africa) had no access in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010.
The business model behind the electric utility has changed over the years playing a vital role in shaping the electricity industry into what it is today; from generation, transmission, distribution, to the final local retailing. This has occurred prominently since the reform of the electricity supply industry in England and Wales in 1990.In 1996 : 1999 the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) made a series of decisions which were intended to open the U.S. wholesale power market to new players, with the hope that spurring competition would save consumers $4 to $5 billion per year and encourage technical innovation in the industry. Steps were taken to give all market participants open access to existing interstate transmission lines. Order No. 888 ordered vertically integrated electric utilities to functionally separate their transmission, power generation and marketing businesses to prevent self-dealing.
Order No. 889 set up a system to provide all participants with timely access to information about available transmission capacity and prices.
The FERC also endorsed the concept of appointing independent system operators (ISOs) to manage the electric power grid : a function that was traditionally the responsibility of vertically integrated electric utility companies. The concept of an independent system operator evolved into that of regional transmission organizations (RTOs). FERC's intention was that all U.S. companies owning interstate electric transmission lines would place those facilities under the control of an RTO. In its Order No. 2000 (Regional Transmission Organizations), issued in 1999, FERC specified the minimum capabilities that an RTO should possess.
These decisions, which were intended to create a fully interconnected grid and an integrated national power market, resulted in the restructuring of the U.S. electricity industry. That process was soon dealt two setbacks: the California energy crisis of 2000, and the Enron scandal and collapse. Although industry restructuring proceeded, these events made clear that competitive markets could be manipulated and thus must be properly designed and monitored. Furthermore, the Northeast blackout of 2003 highlighted the need for a dual focus on competitive pricing and strong reliability standards.
In some countries, wholesale electricity markets operate, with generators and retailers trading electricity in a similar manner to shares and currency. As deregulation continues further, utilities are driven to sell their assets as the energy market follows in line with the gas market in use of the futures and spot markets and other financial arrangements. Even globalization with foreign purchases are taking place. One such purchase was when the UK's National Grid, the largest private electric utility in the world, bought several electric utilities in New England for $3.2 billion. Between 1995 and 1997, seven of the 12 Regional Electric Companies (RECs) in England and Wales were bought by U.S. energy companies. Domestically, local electric and gas firms have merged operations as they saw the advantages of joint affiliation, especially with the reduced cost of joint-metering. Technological advances will take place in the competitive wholesale electric markets, such examples already being utilized include fuel cells used in space flight; aeroderivative gas turbines used in jet aircraft; solar engineering and photovoltaic systems; off-shore wind farms; and the communication advances spawned by the digital world, particularly with microprocessing which aids in monitoring and dispatching.Electricity is expected to see growing demand in the future. The Information Revolution is highly reliant on electric power. Other growth areas include emerging new electricity-exclusive technologies, developments in space conditioning, industrial processes, and transportation (for example hybrid vehicles, locomotives). | [
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Energy | Energy_management_software | Energy Management Software (EMS) is a general term and category referring to a variety of energy-related software applications, which provide energy management including utility bill tracking, real-time energy metering, consumption control (building HVAC and lighting control systems), generation control (solar PV and ESS), building simulation and modeling, carbon and sustainability reporting, IT equipment management, grid services (demand response, virtual power plant, etc), and/or energy audits. Managing energy can require a system of systems approach.
Energy management software often provides tools for reducing energy costs and consumption for buildings, communities or industries. EMS collects energy data and uses it for three main purposes: Reporting, Monitoring and Engagement. Reporting may include verification of energy data, benchmarking, and setting high-level energy use reduction targets. Monitoring may include trend analysis and tracking energy consumption to identify cost-saving opportunities. Engagement can mean real-time responses (automated or manual), or the initiation of a dialogue between occupants and building managers to promote energy conservation. One engagement method that has recently gained popularity is the real-time energy consumption display available in web applications or an onsite energy dashboard/display.
Energy Management Software collects historic and/or real-time interval data, with intervals varying from quarterly billing statements to minute-by-minute smart meter readings. In addition to energy consumption, an EMS collects data related to variables that impact energy consumption such as number of people in the building, outside temperature, number of produced units, and more. The data are collected from interval meters, Building Automation Systems (BAS), directly from utilities, directly from sensors on electrical circuits, or other sources. Past bills can be used to provide a comparison between pre- and post-EMS energy consumption.Through Energy Data Analytics, EMS assists the users in the composition of mathematical formulas for analyzing, forecasting and tracking energy conservation measures to quantify the success of the measure, once implemented. Energy analytics help energy managers combine across energy and non-energy data to create key performance indicators, calculate carbon footprint, greenhouse gas, renewable heat incentives and energy efficiency certifications to meet local climate change policies, directives, regulation and certifications. Energy analytics also include intelligent algorithms such as classification and machine learning to analyse the energy consumption of buildings and/or its equipment that build up a memory of energy use patterns, learn the good and bad energy consumption behaviours and notify in case of abnormal energy use.Reporting tools are targeted at owners and executives who want to automate energy and emissions auditing. Cost and consumption data from a number of buildings can be aggregated or compared with the software, saving time relative to manual reporting. EMS offers more detailed energy information than utility billing can provide; another advantage is that outside factors affecting energy use, such as weather condition or building occupancy, can be accounted for as part of the reporting process. This information can be used to prioritize energy savings initiatives and balance energy savings against energy-related capital expenditures.Bill verification can be used to compare metered consumption against billed consumption. Bill analysis can also demonstrate the impact of different energy costs, for example by comparing electrical demand charges to consumption costs.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting can calculate direct or indirect GHG emissions, which may be used for internal reporting or enterprise carbon accounting.
Monitoring tools track and display real-time and historical data. Often, EMS includes various benchmarking tools, such as energy consumption per square foot, weather normalization or more advanced analysis using energy modelling algorithms to identify anomalous consumption. Seeing exactly when energy is used, combined with anomaly recognition, can allow Facility or Energy Managers to identify savings opportunities.Initiatives such as demand shaving, replacement of malfunctioning equipment, retrofits of inefficient equipment, and removal of unnecessary loads can be discovered and coordinated using the EMS. For example, an unexpected energy spike at a specific time each day may indicate an improperly set or malfunctioning timer. These tools can also be used for Energy Monitoring and Targeting. EMS uses models to correct for variable factors such as weather when performing historical comparisons to verify the effect of conservation and efficiency initiatives.
EMS may offer alerts, via text or email messages, when consumption values exceed pre-defined thresholds based on consumption or cost. These thresholds may be set at absolute levels, or use an energy model to determine when consumption is abnormally high or low. More recently, smartphones and tablets are becoming mainstream platforms for EMS.
Engagement can refer to automated or manual responses to collected and analyzed energy data. Building control systems can respond as readily to energy fluctuation as a heating system can respond to temperature variation. Demand spikes can trigger equipment power-down processes, with or without human intervention.Another objective of Engagement is to connect occupants’ daily choices with building energy consumption. By displaying real-time consumption information, occupants see the immediate impact of their actions. The software can be used to promote energy conservation initiatives, offer advice to the occupants, or provide a forum for feedback on sustainability initiatives.
People-driven energy conservation programs, such as those sponsored by Energy Education, can be highly effective in reducing energy use and cost.
Letting occupants know their real-time consumption alone can be responsible for a 7% reduction in energy consumption.
Monitoring the flows of energy in building allows the users to directly monitor part of the sustainable goals of companies. Allowing them to affect them indirectly. Thats reason why EMS are becoming tool for Sustainability Managers in corporate sphere. Developing new branch of Sustainability Management System (SMS), that can direct part of EMS.Monitoring the energy flows allow Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions to be calculated based on EMS data.
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Energy | ExxonMobil_Beaumont_Refinery | The ExxonMobil Refinery in Beaumont, Texas was built along the banks of the Neches River in 1903. The refinery is currently one of the largest in the world with a nameplate capacity of 634,000 bpd. The plant is also highly integrated with petrochemicals production and lubricants and is a critical part of the Texas-Louisiana gulf coast energy infrastructure. The site encompasses more than 2,700 acres and is staffed by 2,000 employees daily plus another 3,000 contractors to support maintenance and construction activities.
In 1903, construction started on the Burt Refining Company to capitalize on the prolific Spindletop field located just south of Beaumont. Little was known of Burt Refining's origins other than George A. Burts was the owner and was rumored to have been an agent of John D. Rockefeller. In 1909, the State of Texas seized the refinery as an illegal affiliate of Standard Oil and sold in an auction to Magnolia Petroleum Co. The refinery became Texas's third largest by 1920 under Magnolia as the company expanded throughout the region. As Magnolia Petroleum Company expanded its influence in the southwestern United States, Standard Oil Company of New York (SOCONY Mobil) began acquiring shares in the company. In December 1925, all Magnolia stock was exchanged for Standard Oil of New York shares, and the Texas assets were subsequently transferred to Magnolia Petroleum Company. The Magnolia Refinery played a key role during World War II as it stepped up production and shipped oil globally. By 1959, the operations of the Magnolia Oil Company had been merged entirely into SOCONY Mobil. The refinery further in the ensuing decades to becomes Beaumont's largest employer and eventually Mobil's largest refinery by 1980. In 1999, Exxon and Mobil merged to form the largest oil company in the world and the Beaumont Refinery became one of the 5 largest refineries in the combined company's portfolio. Following a $2 billion major capital investment program twenty five years later, including a new 250,000 bpd crude unit, Beaumont became the third largest oil refinery in North America and the largest of any of ExxonMobil's plants.According to ExxonMobil's filings with the US DOE's Energy Information Agency, the unit capacities for the Beaumont Refinery are presented below: The refinery has a Nelson complexity index of 9.0, making it moderately complex.
The refinery has three crude trains. The smallest is CDU A110,000 bpd. The second crude unit is CDU B 274,000 bpd. The newest CDU C was designed for lighter crude oils produced by shale crudes and light tight oils and is of 250,000 bpd of capacity.
Starting in 2019, the refinery underwent a major expansion with a 65% increase in its nameplate capacity as part of a $2 billion program. KBR was contracted to lead the work with a scope that covered offsite facilities and interconnecting units within the expansion This followed ExxonMobil's earlier contract with TechnipFMC PLC for EPC services on four new units, including an atmospheric pipe still, hydrotreater units, and a benzene recovery system.
The refinery has a large lubricants plant located on 27 acres within the refinery. The lubes plant produces 160 million gallons of lubricants across 275 product types and employs 175 employees and 163 contractors.
The refinery has three power plants that are integrated to provide steam and thermal heating to the refinery, in addition to selling electricity to the grid. These are:The refinery is also integrated with a large ExxonMobil petrochemical facility that is collocated on the same plot. Total ethylene cracking capacity for the site is currently 816,000 tons per year according to the Oil & Gas Journal Survey of Steam Crackers.As a major emitting facility, the ExxonMobil Beaumont Refinery and Petrochemical Site must report its complete greenhouse gas emissions to the EPA every year subject to the EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. The Baytown site's Refinery Facility ID is 110041990913 and the Chemical Plant's is 110000464131.Statutory reporting data is in the table below:
The refinery is represented by USW Local 13-243. Labor relations have been contentious at times The U.S. National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) determined that ExxonMobil's 10-month lockout of over 600 workers at the refinery and lube plant was an unlawful attempt to remove the United Steelworkers union as the workers' representative. The NLRB asked an administrative law judge to issue remedies, including back pay, potentially costing Exxon tens of millions. The lockout, which lasted from May 2021 to March 2022, continued while replacements were hired. The NLRB found that Exxon's actions, including messages to workers offering job reinstatement if they voted to decertify the union, undermined federal employee rights. Despite the company's efforts, workers voted to retain USW local 13:243 as their representative.On April 17, 2013, an explosion and fire at ExxonMobil's Beaumont, Texas refinery injured at least 12 people and killed two. The incident was caused by a hydrotreater heat exchanger, releasing hydrocarbons that ignited. Following the event, multiple negligence-based personal injury lawsuits were filed. ExxonMobil attributed the fire to the actions of Clean Harbors, a subcontractor responsible for cleaning operations. ExxonMobil was fined $616,000 by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Environmental Protection Agency for the fire. After a trial, a jury awarded damages to the families of the workers who died of $44 million.In 2016, a 37-year old contract worker named Migual Barron was killed during a turnaround at the refinery when struck by a heat exchanger on the 110,000 bpd crude unit.
In 2017, a female contractor named Yesenia Espinoza was killed on while working on the same crude unit when a pipe fell and landed on her. After the accident, a judge issued a temporary restraining order to cease work on the crude unit until an investigation could be completed. The family of Espinoza sued ExxonMobil for medical, burial, funeral expenses plus damages.
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Energy | Maksim_Sonin | Maksim Sonin (born May 1986) is a thought leader in the energy industry. He is known for his work on humanitarian and global sustainability concerns.
Maksim Sonin has held executive roles and served on the Boards of UCC, Silleno, KMG Petrochem, and other organizations. This includes contributing to the development of the large-scale industrial plants for producing ammonia and fertilizers, designed for high capacity and efficiency, supporting efforts toward a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable transition to a low-carbon economy.Maksim is a regular speaker at various energy-related international events including World Hydrogen by S&P Global, Reuters, the Ammonia Symposium by Stanford, Global Clean Hydrogen, and other prominent global venues. He is also frequently cited in leading publications and outlets, including Nikkei Business Publications, International Business Times, Inc, Forbes, Power etc.
Maksim holds an MS in Management from Stanford Graduate School of Business as a Sloan Fellow, a PhD in Engineering from Scientific Research Institute of Natural Gases and Gas Technologies, and an MS in Finance. He is a member of Stanford University Hydrogen Initiative and Hydrogen Projects Fellow at Stanford University. | [
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Energy | Planetary_civilization | A planetary civilization or global civilization is a civilization of Type I on the Kardashev scale. This type of civilization is likely to be reliant on renewable energy sources such as stellar power, as well as powerful non-renewable sources such as nuclear fusion. A Type I civilization's energy consumption level is roughly equivalent to the solar insolation on Earth (between 1016 and 1017 watts) : around 3 orders of magnitude higher than that of contemporary humanity (around 2×1013 as of 2020).
Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev, in his 1964 paper titled "Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civilizations", proposed a scale intended to measure the level of technological development of civilizations based on the amount of energy that they are able to utilize, eponymously named the Kardashev scale.A Type I civilization is planetary, consuming all energy that reaches its home planet from its parent star, equivalent to about 1017 watts in the case of Earth.
Carl Sagan suggested defining intermediate values (not considered in Kardashev's original scale) by interpolating and extrapolating the commonly used values for the energy consumption levels of types I (1016 W), II (1026 W) and III (1036 W). According to Sagan's extended model, modern-day humanity is describable as a Type 0.73 civilization as of 2020.
Theoretical physicist Michio Kaku, in his book Physics of the Future, published in 2011, stated that, assuming sustained economic growth, humanity may attain planetary civilization status in 100 years.But where is all this technological change leading? Where is the final destination in this long voyage into science and technology?
The culmination of all these upheavals is the formation of planetary civilization, what physicists call a Type I civilization. This transition is perhaps the greatest transition in history, marking a sharp departure from all civilizations of the past. Every headline that dominates the news reflects, in some way, the birth pangs of the planetary civilization. Commerce, trade, culture, language, entertainment, leisure activities, and even war are all being revolutionized by the emergence of this planetary civilization.
Michio Kaku, in his interview "Will Mankind Destroy Itself?" for "Big Think", discussed one possible danger of the transition to a planetary civilization:So whenever I open the newspaper every headline I see in the newspaper points to the birth pangs of a type one civilization information. However, every time I open the newspaper I also see the opposite trend as well. What is terrorism? Terrorism in some sense is a reaction against the creation of a type one civilization. Now most terrorists cannot articulate this. They don’t even know what the hell I’m talking about, but what they’re reacting to is not modernism. What they’re reacting to is the fact that we’re headed toward a multicultural tolerant scientific society and that is what they don’t want. They don’t want science. They want a theocracy. They don’t want multiculturalism. They want monoculturalism. So instinctively they don’t like the march toward a type one civilization. Now which tendency will win? I don’t know, but I hope that we emerge as a type one civilization.
Many futuristic civilizations seen in science fiction are planetary civilizations. According to Michio Kaku, a typicalType I civilization would be that of Buck Rogers or Flash Gordon, where an entire planet's energy resources have been developed. They can control all the planetary sources of energy, so they might be able to control or modify weather at will, harness the power of a hurricane, and build cities on oceans. Nonetheless, their energy output is still largely confined to their home planet.
On the Kardashev scale, the next status (Type II) is a stellar civilization, a civilization that consumes all the energy that its parent star emits, or about 1027 watts. Michio Kaku suggests in the book "Physics of the Future" that humanity may attain stellar civilization status in a few thousand years. | [
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Energy | Thomas_W._Walde | Thomas W. Wälde (9 January 1949 : 11 October 2008), former United Nations (UN) Inter-regional Adviser on Petroleum and Mineral Legislation, was Professor & Jean-Monnet Chair at the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP), Dundee.
Thomas Wälde died on 11 October 2008 in the south of France.Thomas Wälde grew up in Heidelberg (Germany) and went to school at the Kurfuerst-Friedrich-Gymnasium. He was from a South-West German family; his great uncle, Reinhold Maier, was the first Ministerpraesident of Baden-Wuerttemberg; another uncle, Heinz Maier-Leibnitz, a well known German professor of nuclear physics, director of German and French nuclear physics research laboratories and President of the German National Science Foundation (DFG).
Thomas Wälde lived and worked from his home/offices outside St Andrews, Scotland, Heidelberg and Bormes-Les-Mimosas. His second wife, Professor Charlotte Wälde, has served as co-director of the AHRC Centre on Intellectual Property Law at Edinburgh University. His son Max works as an attorney in Vienna, and his daughter Olivia is a student in London.
He studied law, in the traditional German way, at the Universities of Heidelberg, Lausanne-Geneva, Berlin and Frankfurt, with his law degree (Referendar) and doctorate (Juristische Folgenorientierung - a study on decision theory as an interpretative tool for international economic law) - in Frankfurt.He did his professional legal training in Frankfurt (including as an intern at the UN Centre on Transnational Corporations in New York) and obtained his "Assessor" grade there. He also worked as Associate Officer and resident consultant with the UN/CTC in New York and UNIDO in Vienna and was fellow at the Institute for International Economic Law in Frankfurt (founded by Heinrich Kronstein who was also professor at Georgetown Law School in the US and founder of the Washington-based International Law Institute).
Wälde was at Harvard Law School (1972:74) as LL.M. and subsequent visiting scholar. His Harvard LL.M. dissertation - on comparative company law - was published in 1974. Detlev Vagts was his academic mentor and teacher at Harvard Law School; he also worked as research assistant for the late Professor and ICJ Judge Richard Baxter. In 1978, he obtained the now prestigious price by the German Research Foundation (DFG) for a publication on transnational investment agreements (published in Rabelz Zeitschrift) which was, a decade later, named after Heinz Maier-Leibnitz, at one time the President of DFG.
ICJ president Roslyn Higgins had served as an academic mentor for Thomas Wälde since he moved from the United Nations in New York to the University of Dundee, Scotland in 1991.
Wälde started in 1980 as UN interregional adviser on mineral law - with the remit to provide rapid ad hoc advisory services to developing country governments throughout the world. He later became responsible for energy/petroleum and international investment policy as well. At the UN, he advised over 60 governments on legislative reform and contract negotiations with international investors mainly. He was also, from 1981 to 1983, UN investigator on occupation practices in Palestinian territories and responsible for the Secretary General's reports on "Permanent Sovereignty over Natural resources" and the Permanent Sovereignty in Occupied Palestinian territories reports. Wälde set up numerous investment advisory projects - combining legal, financial and technical expertise - to support investment project negotiations; organised training seminars and international UN conferences in the field of mining and oil and gas. He initiated the UN project for environmental guidelines in mining and was chair of the drafting group that produced the first version of the "Berlin Guidelines" in 1990.At Dundee, Wälde, as Professor and Executive Director, developed the Centre for Petroleum and Mineral Law into the world's largest graduate school in its field - with four students in 1991 growing to well over 140 LL.M., MBA, MSC, MBA and PHD students in 2002/2003 (when he gave up the directorship). Student numbers went up, from 1991 to 2002, by a factor of about 40 and fees were raised by a factor of 4. The centre obtained as a recognition for its spectacular growth the prestigious Queen's Award for Enterprise in 2004.
Following his directorship of CEPMLP/Dundee, Wälde developed academic and professional expertise in international dispute resolution, both mediation and arbitration for large, complex, cross-border transnational disputes, primarily (but not exclusively) in the field of oil, gas, energy, infrastructure and mining (but also gaming and private equity) based on contract and investment treaties. He set up OGEMID, the mainly international electronic discussion and intelligence forum which is by now a "must" for anybody seriously engaged in international investment disputes, but also in complex commercial disputes in the energy and resources field. He acted as co-arbitrator in the NAFTA Chapter XI arbitration Thunderbird v Mexico; as co-arbitrator in the BIT-based arbitration of K+ v Czech Republic; and, in 2008, as co-arbitrator in a CAFTA dispute. He has also been appointed to international disputes in the field of mining and energy (electricity). He frequently acts as expert witness and (expert) co-counsel in international arbitrations relating to oil, gas, energy, mining and infrastructure, including Glamis v US, Duke v Peru, Nykomb v Latvia plus commercial, BIT, ECT and NAFTA-based arbitrations under UNCITRAL, ICSID, NAFTA and CAFTA procedural rules. He has also mediated commercial disputes between international oil companies and the SwePol dispute concerning an electricity interconnector between Poland and Sweden.
He was a frequent expert, but also counsel, mediator and arbitrator in international energy and investment disputes (International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Energy Charter Treaty, Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) and commercial contract disputes). Special member of AIPN, member of several int'l arbitral institutions, Rechtsanwalt (Frankfurt) & barrister (Lincoln's Inn - Essex Court Chambers, London). Adviser to the international institutions in the oil and gas field (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, International Energy Agency (IEA), UN, APEC, European Union, World Bank). Identified as leading international energy lawyer in a Euromoney survey, leading international lawyer in a Cambridge-sponsored Who's Who in International law and one of three international arbitrators resident in Scotland. Formerly (up to 1990) Interregional Adviser on Mineral and Petroleum law and International Investment Policy, United Nations, New York; staff and consultant for UN Centre on Transnational Corporations and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (1976:1980); Reporter for International Law Association Foreign Investment Law Committee (damages and tax-related investment disputes). Frequent speaker and author on international investment law, natural resources, mineral, energy and oil and gas law, including renegotiation, taxation, indirect expropriation, de-commissioning (abandonment) of offshore operations; state enterprise privatisation, investment treaties, environmental regulation; arbitration; Energy Charter Treaty.
Thomas Wälde was a prolific writer and speaker, and spoke at conferences around the world. He served as visiting professor at Panthéon-Assas University and American University. He is fellow of the investment programme at the British Institute of International & Comparative Law, at Columbia University's Law School and other EU-law focused institutions. He obtained a Jean-Monnet Chair in an EU-wide competition from the EU Commission in 1995 - on EU Energy and Economic Law. He was a "Special Member" of the Association of Int'l Petroleum Negotiators (AIPN), panel of energy/resources arbitrators of the Permanent court of Int'l Arbitration; Member of the Institut pour l'Arbitrage International; member of the IBA, LCIA, DIS; ICDR, ILA; ASIL, ITA (Academic Council). He was named in several professional guides as a leading international energy lawyers and one of three international arbitrators in Scotland. He was formerly the Chair, Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy Trust; Director of the 2004 Hague Academy for Int'l Law Research Seminar on Int'l Investment Law. He was on the IUCN Energy Working Group and the World Energy Council's Task force on Energy Investment & Trade.
He could write and speak in English, German, French and Spanish, with some knowledge of Italian, Russian and Arabic. He worked in all corners of the world. He developed and led negotiation assistance inter alia in several investment projects related to coal (Colombia), gold (Mali), Guyana (uranium), Dominican Republic (nickel, oil), Cayman Islands (oil) : all led to completed transaction.
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Energy | Uganda_Energy_Credit_Capitalisation_Company | The Uganda Energy Credit Capitalisation Company (UECCC) is a company owned by the government of Uganda. It is responsible for coordinating funding from the Ugandan government, international development partners and the private sector, to invest in renewable energy infrastructure in Uganda, with emphasis on the promotion of private sector participation.
UECCC's headquarters is located in Amber House, at 29-33 Kampala Road, in the centre of Kampala, Uganda's capital and largest city. The coordinates of the company headquarters are 00°18'48.0"N, 32°34'55.0"E (Latitude.313340; Longitude.581949).The company was established in 2009 and coordinates investment into renewable energy sources in the country. The company offers technical, financial, and advisory services to the lending financial institution and to the renewable energy project developer. Services offered include the following: (a) Liquidity refinance option (b) Cash reserving (c) Partial risk guarantee (d) Solar refinance facility to participating microfinance institutions (e) Bridge financing facility (f) Subordinated debt finance (g) Interest rate buy down and (h) Transaction advisory services. Participating international development partners include the World Bank and KfW.The company is jointly owned by the Uganda Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development and the Uganda Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development. As of June 2022, the company's total assets were USh58.4 billion (US$15.257 million). At that time the company was involved in developing nine mini-hydroelectric power stations in the country, that were yet to come online.In July 2024, UECCC signed contracts for the construction of the ORIO Mini Hydropower Project, in the Western Region of Uganda. The project involves the construction of 9 mini-grid dams with total capacity of 6.7 MW. The project will benefit up to 71,081 households and 2,300 small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the districts of Kasese, Bushenyi, Mitooma, Hoima, Kabarole, Bunyangabu and Bundibugyo. The construction is budgeted at USh53.3 billion (approx. US$14.4 million).HNAC Technology Company Limited from China will be responsible for the civil and hydro-mechanical works. Ossberger GmbH from Germany will be responsible for the design, manufacture, supply, and installation of the electromechanical components. The project is co-financed by the Government of Uganda and the ORIO Infrastructure Fund. The government of the Netherlands provided a grant of €13.1 million towards this project.
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Entertainment | Anvil_firing | Anvil firing (also known as anvil launching or anvil shooting) is the practice of firing an anvil into the air with gunpowder.
It is a traditional event held in New Westminster to celebrate Queen Victoria's birthday.
In the United Kingdom, the term refers to a method of testing anvils. Black powder was poured onto the top of the anvil and ignited. If the anvil did not shatter, it was deemed safe to use.
Typically, two anvils are used: one as a base (placed upside down), and another one (also known as the "flier") as the projectile (placed right-side up, atop the base).An alternative method is to place the bottom anvil upright, and fill the hardy hole with black powder. A torus or washer, often made from a playing card, is placed over the hole, with a space for a fuse or powder trail. The top anvil is placed upside down, face to face with the bottom anvil.
A technique for firing a single anvil uses a stone base. The space formed by the anvil's concave base is filled with black powder. Modern double-base powders have much higher energy densities, making them unsuitable. A fuse is made to project out, then lit, and the resulting deflagration sends the projectile anvil several feet into the air.
Anvils were traditionally fired on St. Clement's Day, honoring Pope Clement I, the patron saint of blacksmiths and metalworkers.
Although its practice has lessened in recent years, enthusiasts still participate in anvil launching events and competitions. On September 5, 2011, The Science Channel premiered Flying Anvils, a reality television series about anvil firing.
Individuals may be crushed by falling anvils. The black powder can also prematurely ignite when the top anvil is placed. As in any case where an explosive is confined on all sides by metal, shrapnel presents a hazard. If a damaged or structurally weak anvil is used, the anvil base may shatter upon ignition.The technique depends on the fact that black powder is a low explosive, which burns more rapidly when under pressure.A “21-anvil salute” replaced the traditional 21-gun salute on Victoria Day 1860 in New Westminster, British Columbia, after the town's cannon and status as capital of British Columbia was taken away.On November 7, 1864 during the American Civil War, the commander of the Iowa Home Guard militia in Davis County, Iowa, having no artillery piece at his disposal, ordered a local citizen to fire an anvil in the county seat at Bloomfield to alert militiamen in outlying townships in response to intelligence received of the presence of Confederate bushwhackers in Davis County. This was in response to a report of two suspected Confederate guerrillas at a residence in the neighborhood where they had demanded money and food and had terrorized the occupants, a Mr. and Mrs. Gore. The private citizen who carried out the order to fire the anvil was seriously injured.
One noteworthy celebration was held on the day the State of Texas voted to secede from the Union. On February 23, 1861, Texas Ranger and prominent Union supporter Thomas Lopton Campbell Jr. was held captive and forced to "fire the anvils" in the streets of Austin.
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Entertainment | Aqua_drama | The theatrical genre of aqua drama that was popular in 19th century France, England, and the United States involved flooding the arenas of circuses for recreations of major naval conflicts and similar aquatic events; some venues participated to such a great extent in this once-popular form as to install permanent water-tanks on stage. Water-based spectacles, especially those portraying great naval battles, had been popular in Roman times, when they were known as naumachia, and the custom was resurrected at various times during the Middle Ages.
At the start of the 19th century, the already established Sadler's Wells Theatre came under the management of Charles Dibdin, Jr., a man who had big plans for the theatre's future. In 1804, he installed a large 90x24x3ft water tank that covered the entire stage. The water used to fill the tank was pumped in from the New River, which was adjacent to the theatre, by an Archimedes wheel. This process took twelve men twelve hours: four men would work in four hour shifts and then rotate until the entire tank was full. Even though the tanks were drained and refilled every three weeks they would become filthy. The water would become dirty not only from the shows, but the actors would bathe in the tank, along with rowdy audience members jumping in to see if the water was real. The Aquatic Drama was popular in the early 19th century, and with Sadler's Wells on the outskirts of London, the audiences, especially in the pit were unruly, loud, and most likely drunk. The large water tank that these disruptive audience members would jump into was not the only tank in the theatre, Dibdin Jr. had a second 5x5x5 ft tank above the theatre that was used to simulate waterfalls.The first show Dibdin, Jr. and his crew put on was The Siege of Gibraltar. It opened in 1804, and it was a play that depicted the naval battle between the English Navy and the Spanish Armada. A playbill from this performance describes the battle in the show:"the conflagration of the town in various places, the defense of the garrison, and attack by the floating batteries, [which] is so faithfully and naturally represented, that when the floating batteries take fire, some blowing up with a dreadful explosion, and others, after burning to the water’s edge, sink to the bottom; while the gallant Sir Roger Curtis appears in his boat to save the drowning Spaniards, the British tars for that purpose plunging into the water, the effect is such as to produce an unprecedented climax of astonishment and applause."
There were 177 ships on the liquid stage, all equipped with live guns and ready for battle. Over a hundred real scale sized naval ships would not have been able to fit in Sadler's Wells tanks, so Dibdin hired men who worked at the Woolwich Dockyards to build him smaller ships built at a one-inch per foot scale, with exact detailed imitation down to the rigging. Children were cast as some of the Spanish naval officers manning the tiny ships, and were seen “drowning” after the Spanish had been defeated. The climactic battle of the show was when the English and Spanish went head on, full force, with guns blazing, and the audience members saw incredible spectacle as the English triumphantly destroyed the Spanish Armada.
In 1823 Sadler's Wells presented the aqua drama entitled The Island or Christian and His Comrades which dramatized the main events of the Mutiny on board HMS Bounty. In order to alleviate a twenty-minute delay between a dry land scene and an aquatic scene, the stage was made to ascend to near the roof of the theatre, in full view of the audience.
Eventually the aqua drama slash began to ripple then calm as audience members were no longer pleased with what was being performed at Sadler's Wells. This could have been due to the fact that Dibdin, Jr. tried to reuse many of his 177 ships from the Siege of Gibraltar, and they were no longer new and exciting to the audiences, but also the Napoleonic wars could have contributed. According to Dan Cuickshank at BBC News, the Napoleonic wars were raging on during the early 1800s and England dipped its toes in the war waters in 1793 with the new Revolutionary France. After a decade of fighting the two countries finally signed at the Treaty of Amiens, which only lasted a month until in May 1803 war broke out between the two countries again. The initial declaration of war could have sparked a rise in nationalism with in England, being a contributing factor into the Dibden, Jr. and his aquatic drama's success. Britain was known for having a large and powerful navy, and they didn't mind flexing their muscles as they asserted themselves as the most powerful navy in Europe at the 1815 after their victory at Waterloo. The citizens of England would have known how powerful their countries navy was. Seeing shows, such as the ones being put at Sadler's Wells, reminded the English people of how strong their military was, making them feel proud and safe initially. Yet, after a few years into the war the citizens began to realize the horrors of war. According to Mather, they were exposed not only to the death of friends and family along with the fear of invasion, but also the raising of taxes to fund the military. A staggering 11.6 million, which is around 570 million pounds in today's market, was spent on forts alone, most of which were protecting dock yards. The British people became fed up with war, especially naval combat and eventually the tanks were taken out of the theatre. Removal of the tanks due to lack of popularity reflects the English nation's view of war.Even though the tanks were removed in 1824, aqua drama was a part of a long lasting theatre's history. The legacy left behind of aquatic theatre is only a few pages in books and websites, and a painting or two, but Sadler's Wells legacy has been alive and well since Richard Sadler first opened his music house in 1683. Since then the theatre has seen many triumphs and tragedies. After Charles Dibdin, Jr. resigned there was a false fire alarm during one of the shows which lead to 18 people being stampeded to death.In 1843 the theater was once again successful, as the actor manager Samuel Philips put on Shakespeare's plays. Sadly, in 1915 the doors to Sadler's Wells were closed. Lilian Baylis, who wanted everyone in London to have the privilege to see the mesmerizing art of theatre, raised the money to reopen Sadler's Wells. The Sadler's Wells legacy continued as it was once again able to share theatre's magic with the people of northern London in 1931. After many years of putting on progressive theatre that entertained northern London, the play aspect of Sadler's Wells eventually faded out, opera and dance became prominent. Around 1945 Sadler's Wells started to become a strictly dance performance hall. The theatre legacy was replaced over the next half century as the once music hall become an outstanding, well respected dance hall. Sadler's Wells still stands today, not in the same building, but with the murky water of Charles Dibdin, Jr.’s aquatic theatre running in its historic veins.
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Entertainment | Delfines_Hotel_&_Convention_Center | The Delfines Hotel & Convention Center, formerly known as the Delfines Hotel & Casino and commonly known as the Hotel Los Delfines, is a five-star hotel in San Isidro District, Lima, Peru. From its opening in 1997 until 2010, the hotel was best known for its two bottlenose dolphins, Yaku and Wayra, who gave the hotel its name.
The hotel, owned by Jacques Levy Calvo—a Peruvian businessman and banker of French-Jewish descent—and his siblings, opened on July 15, 1997, intended to attract foreign businessmen visiting the city. Its name came from the two dolphins that were trained by Levy's (then) wife, María Elena Llanos. At the time of its opening, it was the first hotel able to host more than 1,000 in an event hall.In 2008, the hotel's "Salón Mediterráneo" event hall was one of the locations where meetings of that year's summit of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation were held.
Yaku (born c. 1988) and Wayra (born c. 1992) are two male and female bottlenose dolphins that served as the hotel's namesake and main attraction from 1997 to 2010. Born off the coasts of Cuba, they were smuggled to Mexico, where they became known as "Yoyo" and "Laly" until their arrival to Peru, where they were moved to the hotel and renamed to the Quechua words for "water" and "air", respectively.The dolphins' arrival to Peru in 1997 after their purchase the year before led to an immediate response by animal welfare groups in the country, with the Judiciary of Peru ruling in favour of the hotel, concluding that the pool where they were kept was built prior to the creation of any regulations regarding the maintenance of captive dolphins. Consequently, the dolphins remained in the hotel, accessible to its guests and reportedly exposed to the show lights and street noise.
In 2010, both dolphins were moved from the hotel to another pool in a hill near La Herradura, a beach in Chorrillos District. The new site's poor conditions were condemned by local media, with its small size (12 m in diameter and 3.5 m deep) being highlighted. All visits ceased to be allowed in 2011.
During the entirety of her captivity, Wayra became pregnant four times with ultimately no calf surviving due to the conditions they lived in. The one calf she gave birth to is alleged to have been crushed by her due to the small size of the hotel pool.
Both dolphins were reportedly moved to Dolphin Cove Jamaica, a dolphinarium in Jamaica, on July 18, 2014. These claims have since been disputed, however, by former caretaker Ursula Behr, who was once denied a visit to the dolphins in June 2014. María Elena Llanos, Levy's ex-wife, also denounced the lack of transparency and possible abuse in the animals' transport, highlighting that Yaku's cardiac issues could be fatal if not treated properly.
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Entertainment | Dumb_Ways_to_Die | Dumb Ways to Die is an Australian public awareness campaign video and media franchise made by Metro Trains in Melbourne, Victoria to promote railway safety. The original cartoon public service announcement for the awareness campaign went viral on social media after it was released on the internet in November 2012, amassing over 320 million views on YouTube. The campaign's animation was later developed into an mobile app available to iOS and Android devices.
On 1 October 2021, PlaySide Studios acquired the Dumb Ways to Die franchise for A$2.25 million from Metro. PlaySide Studios also released an NFT called BEANS on 3 February 2022.
The campaign was devised by advertising agency McCann Melbourne. It appeared in newspapers, local radio and outdoor advertising throughout the Metro Trains network and on Tumblr. John Mescall, executive creative director of McCann, said "The aim of this campaign is to engage an audience that really doesn't want to hear any kind of safety message, and we think dumb ways to die will." McCann estimated that within two weeks, it had generated at least $50 million worth of global media value in addition to more than 700 media stories, for "a fraction of the cost of one TV ad". According to Metro Trains, the campaign contributed to a 20% reduction in "near-miss" accidents compared to the annual average, or 30% with respect to the same time of the year before from 13.29 near-misses per million kilometres in November 2011 : January 2012, to 9.17 near-misses per million kilometres in November 2012 : January 2013.The video was art directed by Patrick Baron, animated by Julian Frost and produced by Cinnamon Darvall. It was uploaded to YouTube on 14 November 2012 and made public two days later. It featured characters known as "Beans", each bearing names such as "Numpty," "Hapless," "Pillock," and "Dippy" (the first four beans in the video, listed in order of appearance) dying as a result of their own stupidity (doing such unwise things as setting their own hair on fire or provoking a grizzly bear); the final three beans shown in the video, named "Stumble", "Bonehead", and "Putz", all die as a result of unsafe behavior at train stations and/or railways, which are deemed "the dumbest ways to die". The animated video has two versions, one in English, and one in Spanish, titled "Formas Tontas de Morir."
The song "Dumb Ways to Die" from the video was written by John Mescall and co created with Patrick Baron, music by Ollie McGill from the Cat Empire, who also produced it. It was performed by Emily Lubitz, the lead vocalist of Tinpan Orange, with McGill providing backing vocals. The band on the recording consists of Gavin Pearce on bass, Danny Farrugia on drums and Brett Wood on guitar. It was released on iTunes, attributed to the artist "Tangerine Kitty" (a reference to Tinpan Orange and The Cat Empire).The song, with a tempo of 128 beats per minute, is written in C major and a time signature of 4/4.
Charts
On 6 May 2013, Metro released a Dumb Ways to Die game as an app for iOS devices. The game, developed by Julian Frost, Patrick Baron and Samuel Baird, invites players to avoid the dangerous activities engaged in by the various characters featured throughout the campaign. Within the app, players can also pledge to "not do dumb stuff around trains." The activities include things like getting toast out with a fork and poking a stick at a grizzly bear.An Android version was released in September 2014.
The game is similar to games in the WarioWare series. The game presents minigames based on the animated music video in rapid succession and becomes faster and more difficult the longer the game is played.
A sequel titled Dumb Ways to Die 2: The Games was released on 18 November 2014. In the sequel, there are a lot more varieties of challenges in each particular building, and each building has a particular theme. Before a train arrives at a building, the player plays a challenge to counter something related to trains. If successful, bonus points can be earned at the end of the game. There are 8 challenges each in every building. Like the original game, the game's characters do plenty of dangerous and unsafe activities. Lives can be lost by "dying" in one of the activities. The player has three chances to prevent the characters from dying.
The game is recently also available as a web and mobile-web version by MarketJS, license holder of the HTML5 web IP.
A second sequel titled Dumb Ways to Die 3: World Tour was released on 21 December 2017. Unlike the previous games which both involved the player playing minigames and trying to prevent the characters from dying, here the player collects coins from houses that are fixed up from being initially broken. The houses are fixed by the player playing a new minigame for each area containing those houses.
A third sequel titled Dumb Ways to Die 4 was released on Android and iOS on May 2, 2023.
A spinoff was also released, titled Dumb Ways to Draw on 5 May 2019. In the game, the player has to draw lines with in-game pens to guide the characters to their goals. But they also have to prevent the characters' deaths by dangers. It also had a colouring section to colour and share drawings as well as a "trace the picture" section, in which the player is required to hold the screen until a line of sufficient length is drawn to trace the given diagram. The sequel titled Dumb Ways to Draw 2 was released on 23 December 2022.
Another spinoff, titled Dumb Ways to Dash was released on 13 December 2019. The player has to guide their character in a 3D race against other characters to the finish line while avoiding the obstacles.
A third spinoff, titled Dumb Ways to Die: Superheroes was released on 25 June 2020. It has similar gameplay to the previous spinoff.
The Metro Trains has also published a number of other videos on its YouTube channel, "Dumb Ways to Die", including trailers of the games, a video centered on the MIFF, a series of Christmas-themed short videos, Halloween-themed videos, clips of the characters appearing in real life, and some other videos centered on Train Safety.Susie O'Brien in the Herald Sun in Melbourne criticised the ad for trivialising serious injuries and being about advertisers' ego rather than effective safety messages.Simon Crerar of the Herald Sun wrote that the song's "catchy chorus was the most arresting hook since PSY's Gangnam Style." Alice Clarke writing in the Herald Sun described the video as "adorably morbid" and wrote that Victoria's public transport "broke its long running streak of terrible ads".
Daisy Dumas of the Sydney Morning Herald described it as "darkly cute—and irksomely catchy" and the chorus as "instant earworm material".
Michelle Starr of CNET described the campaign as the Darwin Awards meets The Gashlycrumb Tinies and the song as "a cutesy indie-pop hit in the style of Feist".
Logan Booker of Gizmodo described it as "taking a page out of the Happy Tree Friends book and mixing cute with horrifying".
Karen Stocks of YouTube Australia said the video was unusual due to the high number of views from mobile devices. Stocks attributed the success to "A snappy headline. A catchy tune that gets stuck in your head. And a message that is easy to understand and perfectly targeted."
The Sunshine Coast Daily described it as "the Gangnam Style of train safety campaigns".
Arlene Paredes of the International Business Times said the video was "brilliant in getting viewers' attention" and "arguably one of the cutest PSAs ever made."
The campaign received some criticism on the basis that suicide is one of the most influential causes of rail trauma, and the ad reinforces deadly trains as a possible suicide method. Writing in Mumbrella in February 2013, a former employee of Victoria's Department of Infrastructure advised critical thinking when evaluating claims made regarding improvements to safety. Reference was made specifically to the claimed 20 per cent reduction in risky behaviour as being "social media bullshit".In February 2013, Artemy Lebedev's blog was censored by Roskomnadzor, the Russian government agency in charge of Internet censorship, for including the video. Later that day, the YouTube video was also censored, with the "This content is not available in your country due to a legal complaint from the government" message. The official takedown notice sent to Livejournal.com was quoted, in part, by Lebedev in his blog.The song's lyrics contains a description of different ways of committing suicide, such as: using drugs beyond their expiration date, standing on an edge of a platform, running across the rails, eating superglue and other. The animated personages demonstrate dangerous ways of suicide in attractive for children and teenagers comic format. The lines such as "Use a clothes dryer as a hiding place" and "I wonder what's this red button do?" contain an incitement to commit those acts.
Despite this, the video was still included into the ABC Show and was shown in more than 50 cities across Russia.
The campaign won seven Webby Awards in 2013 including the Best Animation Film & Video and Best Public Service & Activism (Social Content & Marketing).It won three Siren Awards, run by Commercial Radio Australia, including the Gold Siren for best advertisement of the year and Silver Sirens for the best song and best campaign.
The public service announcement was awarded the Grand Trophy in the 2013 New York Festivals International Advertising Awards.
In June 2013, the campaign clip won the Integrated Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity, and overall, won five Grand Prix awards, 18 Gold Lions, three Silver Lions, and two Bronze Lions, which was the most for any campaign in the festival's history.
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Entertainment | Elegiac_comedy | Elegiac comedy was a genre of medieval Latin literature—or drama—represented by about twenty texts written in the 12th and 13th centuries in the liberal arts schools of west central France (roughly the Loire Valley). Though commonly identified in manuscripts as comoedia, modern scholars often reject their status as comedy. Unlike Classical comedy, they were written in elegiac couplets. Denying their true comedic nature, Edmond Faral called them Latin fabliaux, after the later Old French fabliaux, and Ian Thomson labelled them Latin comic tales. Other scholars have invented terms like verse tales, rhymed monologues, epic comedies, and Horatian comedies to describe them. The Latin "comedies", the dramatic nature of which varies greatly, may have been the direct ancestors of the fabliaux but more likely merely share similarities. Other interpretations have concluded that they are primitive romances, student juvenilia, didactic poems, or merely collections of elegies on related themes.
Some elegiac comedies were adapted into vernacular language in the later Middle Ages, and retold by major vernacular writers such as Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Gower. The poem Pamphilus has Venetian and Old French versions.
These comedies were composed in a high style, but they were typically about low or unimportant subject matter; lyric complaints only sometimes mixed with amorous content. They combined the plot and character types of the Greek "new comedy" practised by Terence and Plautus, but the greatest influence on them was Ovid. His Ars amatoria, Amores, and Heroides were highly influential. Plautus, though less widely read in the Middle Ages, was also an influence, as were the Scholastic debates concerning the nature of universals and other contemporary philosophical problems, with which the elegiac comedies often dealt, always humorously but no doubt sometimes to a serious end.The elegiac dramatists delight in "showing off" their Latin skills. Their use of rhetoric, logic, and various grammatical constructions suggest that they may have been used in the schools as exercises in poetic composition and philosophical argument. The language of their "fools" can be deliberately outlandish, and their deft use of puns is frequently sexual in nature. Parody is another typical element of elegiac humour. Persons of low rank are often placed in positions unsuited to them. Their bumbling, as when a rustic attempts to speak philosophically or the commoner pretends he is a chivalrous gentleman, is portrayed for its satiric effect. Satire is often employed in long digressions criticizing the corruption of the times, specifically targeting the selling of church offices, political corruption at court, sycophants’ attempts to rise in society, and aristocrats’ attempts to philosophize. In the Middle Ages, satire was usually considered a breed of comedy.
The comedies were often about a sexual conquest, in which the lover must use his guile to overcome obstacles such as guardians, rivals, and reluctance on the part of the woman. The setting is some unspecified time contemporary with the poet, and the characters are all typical and have names descriptive of their traits and function in the story. The lack of resources on the part of the hero forces him to resort to deception and to employ intermediaries (as Ovid did in his narratives) in order to win the object of his desire.The elegiac comedies bear limited dramatic features. Thompson denies their theatricality, saying that "no ancient drama would ever have been written in elegiacs." A similar opinion is that the comedies are rhetorical exercises. Medieval poetic theory, however, did not regard comedy and elegy as mutually exclusive, nor identical. John of Garland wrote "all comedy is elegy, but the reverse is not true." Other arguments raised against the dramatic performance of the comedies is, in general, their large number of narrative segments as opposed to dialogue. Arnulf of Orléans, one of the elegiac writers, seems to have considered his work to have been made for the stage. These performances may have been narrated, mimed, or sung.
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Entertainment | Metagame | A metagame, broadly defined as "a game beyond the game", typically refers to either of two concepts: a game which revolves around a core game; or the strategies and approaches to playing a game. A metagame can serve a broad range of purposes, and may be tied to the way a game relates to various aspects of life.
In competitive games, the metagame can refer to the most popular strategy, often called a game's meta, or preparation for a match in general.
In tabletop role-playing game, metagaming has been used to describe players discussing the game, sometimes simply rules discussions and other times causing the characters they control to act in ways they normally would not within the story.
The word metagame is composed of the Greek-derived prefix meta: (from μετά, meta, meaning "beyond") and the noun game. The shorthand meta has been backronymed as "Most Effective Tactics Available" to tersely explain the concept. Metagame was used in the context of playing zero-sum games in a publication by the Mental Health Research Institute in 1956. It is alternately claimed that the first known use of the term was in Nigel Howard's book Paradoxes of Rationality: Theory of Metagames and Political Behavior published in 1971, where Howard used the term in his analysis of the Cold War political landscape using a variation of the Prisoner's Dilemma., however Howard used the term in Metagame Analysis in Political Problems published in 1966. In 1967, the word appeared in a study by Russell Lincoln Ackoff and in the Bulletin of the Operations Research Society of America.In casual gaming, the metagame generally refers to any meaningful interaction between players and elements not directly part of the game. The concept gained traction in game design in a column written in 1995 by Richard Garfield, the creator of Magic: The Gathering, for The Duelist. In a 2000 talk at the Game Developers Conference, Garfield expanded on this, defining metagame as "how a game interfaces beyond itself", and asserted that this can include "what you bring to a game, what you take away from a game, what happens between games, [and] what happens during a game". Stephanie Boluk and Patrick Lemieux extend and refine Garfield's term to apply to potentially all forms of play and gaming, arguing that metagames are often more important than video games themselves. They go on to describe that metagaming "results from the entanglement of philosophical concepts, the craft of game design, and the cultures of play that surrounds videogames."In the world of competitive games, rule imprecisions and non-goal oriented play are not commonplace. As a result, the extent of metagaming narrows down mostly to studying strategies of top players and exploiting commonly-used strategies for an advantage. Those may evolve as updates are released or new, better, strategies are discovered by top players. The opposite metagame of playing a relatively unknown strategy for surprisal is often called off-meta.This usage is particularly common in games that have large, organized play systems or tournament circuits. Some examples of this kind of environment are tournament scenes for tabletop or computer collectible card games like Magic: The Gathering, Gwent: The Witcher Card Game or Hearthstone, tabletop war-gaming such as Warhammer 40,000 and Flames of War, or team-based multiplayer online games such as Star Conflict, Dota 2, League of Legends, and Team Fortress 2. In some games, such as Heroes of the Storm, each battleground has a different metagame.
The meta in these environments is often affected by new elements added by the game's developers and publishers, such as new card expansions in card games, or adjustments to character abilities in online games. The metagame may also come within player communities as reactions to win over currently-popular strategies, creating ebbs and flows of strategy types over time.
In competitive games, more pervasive forms of metagaming like teaming in free-for-all multiplayer games can be interpreted as cheating or as bad sportsmanship. Writer Richard Garfield's book, Lost in the Shuffle: Games Within Games, considers instead teaming as just a form of metagaming. The practice of losing individual games to dodge stronger opponents in tournaments has also been interpreted as a form of metagaming, sometimes considered as unfair.Exploiting the meta is commonplace in esports. In StarCraft, a player's previous matches with the same opponent have given them insight into that player's play style and may cause them to make certain decisions which would otherwise seem inferior. Another instance of using the meta in esports was in 2012 at The International, a Dota 2 competition, when one team was able to exploit "predictable, economical strategies and that summer's metagame, the in-game decisions and team configurations that were fashionable" to counter a play by the other team. In fighting games, the meta is also played through character selection. The opposing character has various strengths that can be avoided and weaknesses that can be exploited more easily depending on the character you choose provided you are aware of those strengths and weaknesses (called a "match up"). For a basic example, a character with a projectile attack has the advantage over a grappler who must be close to the opponent to be effective. Match up metagaming is very important in tournament settings. In recent fighting games, blind select has been implemented for online modes. This makes it so that neither player can see what character the other player chose. In tournaments, players have the option to opt for a blind select where they tell a judge in confidence the character they intend to select in the match, making their character choice mandatory. A newer trend in more recently released titles is to allow the selection of multiple characters at once which the player can then switch between on the fly, rendering match-up picking excessively hard and virtually impractical.
In popular trading card games, such as Magic: The Gathering, Pokémon Trading Card Game, or Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game players compete with decks they have created in advance and the meta consists of the deck types that are currently popular and expected to show up in large numbers in a tournament. The knowledge of metagame trends can give players an edge against other participants, both while they are playing by quickly recognizing what kind of deck opponents have and guessing their likely cards or moves, and during the deck building process, by selecting cards that do well against current popular deck types at the possible expense of performance against rarer ones. Another example of metagaming would be bluffing opponents into expecting cards that you do not have, or surprising the competition with novel decks that they may not be prepared for. The secondary market of cards is heavily influenced by metagame trends: cards become more valuable when they are popular, often to the point of scarcity.Competitive chess has a well-defined meta in the form of chess openings and chess schools. A particular example are hypermodern openings. They became popular after World War I as high-ranked players like Aron Nimzowitsch started to play them. A popular off-meta is to play unpopular openings for humor or for strategically denying subsequent use of opening theory.
More narrowly, the playing history (meta) of a player or small group of players can be used to gain an advantage. A scholar's mate is a special set of moves can allow a player to win in four moves, usually by and against beginners. An example where this meta can be exploited by the opponent is as follows: competitor A has been watching Competitor B play chess, and the past five games in a row Competitor B has attempted to use this four-move win. When Competitor A sits down to play against Competitor B, Competitor A can play in a way to give them an advantage, assuming Competitor B repeats this line.
In tabletop role-playing games, metagaming can refer to aspects of play that occur outside of a given game's fictional universe. In particular, metagaming often refers to having an in-game character act on knowledge that the player has access to, but the character should not. For example, having a character bring a mirror to defeat Medusa when they are unaware her gaze can petrify them, or being more cautious when the game is run by a merciless gamemaster.Some consider metagaming to benefit oneself bad sportsmanship. It is frowned upon in many role-playing communities, as it upsets suspension of disbelief, and affects game balance. However, some narrativist indie role-playing games deliberately support metagaming and encourage shared storytelling among players.
The metagame for game developers refers to the extra set of rules and logic that are independent of the core gameplay. This can involve extra progressions or an economic market appended to the core gameplay that add mid- and long-term goals for players. Some researchers argue that having a metagame for players can increase user engagement with those games. | [
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Entertainment | Musical_canine_freestyle | Musical canine freestyle, also known as musical freestyle, freestyle dance, and canine freestyle, is a modern dog sport that is a mixture of obedience training, tricks, and dance that allows for creative interaction between dogs and their owners. The sport has developed into competition forms in several countries around the world.
Musical freestyle started in many places almost simultaneously around 1989, with demonstrations of the talent of heeling to music being shown in Canada, England, the United States, and the Netherlands within three years of each other. The main unifying element among the groups was an interest in more creative obedience demonstrations and dog training, a love of music, and, in many cases, inspiration from an equine sport called musical kur, which was a more creative and dynamic form of dressage.The first official musical freestyle group, Musical Canine Sports International, was founded in British Columbia, Canada, in 1991. Soon, other groups followed in the United States and England. Each region began developing its own style, with many American groups promoting more trick-based routines and costumes. English groups focused more on heel work and on the dog, and less on costumes and design. Musical freestyle has become more common in animal talent shows and specialty acts.
Teaching a dog to be able to work on both sides of the handler's body, not just the left side as in standard obedience heeling, is the first step to doing freestyle. The trainer first breaks the routine into pieces with only two or three moves linked together, and as they progress these pieces are linked together.There are two types of musical canine freestyle, freestyle heeling (also known as heelwork to music) and musical freestyle.
Heelwork to music focuses on a dog's ability to stay in variations of the heel position while the handler moves to music. In heel work to music, the dog and trainer remain close to each other at all times. Sending the dog away or doing distance work is not part of the routine, with the dog remaining almost invisibly tethered to the trainer. Pivots, and moving diagonally, backwards, and forwards to a suitable musical theme are important to the routine. Jumping, weaving, rolling, passing through the trainer's legs and anything else considered "not heeling" is not allowed.Musical freestyle demands that the dog perform a variety of tricks and other obedience talents. In musical freestyle, heel work can be combined with other moves such as leg weaving, sending the dog away, moving together at a distance, and more dramatic tricks such as jumping, spinning, bowing, rolling over. Dancing in place, and other innovative actions where the dog plays off the dance moves of the trainer are encouraged. A popular finishing trick for some routines is for the dog to jump into the trainer's arms, or over his or her back.Currently, there are several organizations regulating competitive freestyle, such as Rally Freestyle Elements, the World Canine Freestyle Organization, Canine Freestyle Federation, Dogs Can Dance and the Musical Dog Sport Association in the United States, Paws 2 Dance Canine Freestyle Organization in Canada, Canine Freestyle GB in Great Britain, and Pawfect K9 Freestyle Club in Japan. In the UK, the sport is called Heelwork to Music and is an officially recognized sport of the Kennel club.Competition rules vary from group to group, and from country to country, but most are based on a variety of technical and artistic merit points. All routines are done free of training aids or leashes, except in some beginner categories. Competition can be done as a single dog-and-handler team, as a pair of dogs and handlers, or as a full team of three or more dogs and their handlers. Generally, there is only one dog per handler for competition.
In either type of competition, the choice of music and the way the routine reflects the music is important. Routines not following the rhythm, no matter how well executed, do not score well.
Exhibition freestyle is a no-holds-barred routine designed to demonstrate the full extent of creativity and excitement that musical freestyle can offer. Though highly entertaining and representing what most people see on television or at events, it allows for moves, props, cues, and costumes that would not usually be allowed on the competition circuit.
Rally Freestyle Elements (Rally FrEE) combines the trick behaviors of Canine Musical Freestyle with the format of Rally-Obedience.
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Entertainment | Nonchalance | Nonchalance began as an art collective in Oakland, California around 2002, and later in 2008 was transformed into a design consultancy group. Their work focuses on interactive, immersive art installations, which they call "situational design".
Nonchalance was launched by Jeff Hull around 2002. Their first project was the street art campaign called Oaklandish. Original projects included a wheat-paste poster series, the "Oakland-Love Retrospective" slide show (projected onto downtown architectural landmarks), the Liberation Drive-In parking lot movie series, and the Oakslander Lakeside Gazette zine. These projects aimed to infuse cultural content into negative urban spaces during a time of rapid development in the city.In 2008, Nonchalance created The Jejune Institute, an alternate reality game, public art installation and immersive experience that ran in San Francisco, California, from 2008 to 10 April 2011. The Jejune Institute featured a narrative that made use of live actors, puzzles, phone calls, radio transmissions, staged protests, and interactive promenade theater. It centered on characters such as the eponymous Jejune Institute and its founder, the rebel group the Elsewhere Public Works Agency, and a rebellious young woman named Eva.Over the course of three years, it enrolled more than 10,000 players who, responding to eccentric flyers plastered all over the city, started the game by receiving their "induction" at the fake headquarters of the institute, located in an office building in San Francisco's Financial District.
In 2015, Nonchalance opened the Latitude Society, an invite-only secret society and immersive experience. It featured a clubhouse, an arcade, and regular social events. The Latitude Society closed after one year, at least partially due to an operating cost of $3,000 per day.From 2021 to 2022, Nonchalance ran a podcast called SYGNYL, "a participatory-arts podcast" inviting the audience to participate in "small collaborative acts in the real world."The Jejune Institute won "Best World" and "Best Story" at Indiecade 2010, and "Best Alternate Reality" in the SF Bay Guardian's "Best of the Bay 2010". | [
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Entertainment | Rene_van_Helsdingen | Rene Peter Onno Rubiono van Helsdingen (born 25 February 1957) is a Dutch pianist and composer.
He studied classical music with Komter Loeber in Blaricum in the Netherlands from 1962:72. Then he studied jazz music with Terry Trotter and Lazlo Cser in Los Angeles in 1979. His earliest influences include Oscar Peterson, McCoy Tyner and Bill Evans.
Over the years pianist René has recorded and produced for many different labels, such as Virgin, Timeless, WEA, Dureco, Zebra Acoustic, Pacific Music, Turning Point records, Munich Records, demajors Independent Music Industry Jakarta and his own labels: Relukreul records, and Helsdingen Music, The Netherlands. Helsdingen writes most of his repertoire. Australian newspaper The Age characterised him as "A rewarding pianist who can play comfortably in the groove, or create more impressionistic patterns, or quiet, subtle musings. Perhaps the most notable quality of his solos is brevity. René allows himself a few extended workouts and avoids the trap of repeating himself or overstating his case."
Helsdingen has organized many successful tours, projects and festivals sponsored by NGOs, governmental institutions, companies to which he was responsible with regard to the control over the budgets made available.
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Entertainment | Rule_63 | Rule 63 is an Internet meme that states that, as a rule, "for every character there is a gender swapped version of that character". It is one of the "Rules of the Internet" that began in 2006 as a Netiquette guide on 4chan and were eventually expanded upon by including deliberately mocking rules, of which Rule 63 is an example. It began to see general use in fandom communities as a term to refer to both fan-made and official gender flips of existing fictional characters.
Prior to the creation of Rule 63, gender flipping was popularized in video games in the 1990s by the finishing move of Darkstalkers character Demitri Maximoff, a vampire. Called the "Midnight Bliss", it involved tossing a rose at a character to transform them into a helpless maiden and completely drain them of life energy. This meant that female versions of all the game's male characters had to be created, as well as those of Street Fighter and SNK characters when SNK vs. Capcom included Maximoff. These female interpretations became popular and resulted in large amounts of fan art, as well as prompting art of gender-swaps of other male and female characters.Rule 63 was created in mid-2007 as an addition to the humorous "Rules of the Internet", originally created around the end of 2006 on 4chan. It lists two statements:
"for every given male character, there is a female version of that character", and
"for every given female character, there is a male version of that character".
The trope, originally seen primarily unofficially, later became more widely disseminated in popular culture, with critics stating that it had been "recognized by Hollywood".
Rule 63 is commonly used as a term to refer to gender-swapped interpretations of existing characters in fanworks, such as fan art, fan fiction and cosplay, and it is particularly pervasive in the anime and manga community, where communities sprang up built around romantic gender-swap relationships. It also often overlaps with the creation of moe anthropomorphic female versions of non-human, male characters. A well-known example of this is Bowsette, a female version of the Mario antagonist Bowser that became one of the most popular Internet memes of 2018. However, it has also been used by critics to refer to official characters who are gender-swapped versions of older characters or fictional beings, such as Number Six from Battlestar Galactica being a "sexy female" version of a Cylon Centurion, and the female main cast of the 2016 reboot of Ghostbusters.The creation of Rule 63 cosplays such as gender-swapped superheroes has been cited as popular among female cosplayers as giving them the ability to portray roles beyond socially approved gendered scripts. It is seen as empowering, allowing cosplayers to wear clothing and weapons usually not afforded to female characters. However, certain characters with inherent gender fluidity are said to work better than others. Such gender-bending cosplay, which allows the cosplayer to choose what behavior enhances the performance, can be contrasted with crossplay, which completely immerses the cosplayer in the codes of another gender.
Adventure Time received a spin-off series entitled Fionna and Cake, based on the eponymous episode of the original show, which featured Fionna and Cake, gender-swapped versions of Finn and Jake as main characters, as well as genderbent versions of other characters that later featured in other episodes.The 2016 Ghostbusters reboot featured a cast of female leads that was called "proof of Rule 63", with similarities noted between each team member and one of the original male team members. It was called an official acknowledgement of what was formerly an unofficial, fan-driven phenomenon.
In an episode of The Loud House titled One of the Boys, Lincoln has a dream of traveling to an alternate dimension where all his sisters are male. Near the end of the episode, he travels to another dimension where he is female. A picture of him and a female version of Clyde, his best friend, can be seen in "her" room.
In an episode of Malcolm in the Middle, season 4, episode 10, titled "If Boys Were Girls", Lois pictures Reese, Malcolm, and Dewey as girls, named Renee, Mallory, and Daisy, respectively. Francis is also a girl named Frances, with Christopher Kennedy Masterson in drag.
In the Mario series, the fan-made Bowsette is a female version of the male antagonist Bowser, created through the use of the Super Crown, a power-up that imparts the appearance and abilities of Princess Peach on its user. Nintendo's official clarification is that the item is only usable by Toadette, and the creation of Bowsette is "technically impossible".In Shovel Knight, a "Body Swap Mode" (originally called "Gender Swap") was added after it was funded as a Kickstarter goal, allowing the player to change the secondary sex characteristics of every major character in the game (and, independently, their pronouns) via the settings menu. The developers endeavored to maintain parity with the original character designs by only making their swapped version as gendered as the original, as well as matching their existing personality and gameplay.
In the Zelda series, the character Linkle was created by Nintendo as an alternate-universe gender-swap of the typical main character, Link. However, she does not possess his powers, and is instead a normal girl who dual-wields a pair of crossbows. Made playable in Hyrule Warriors Legends, she was also modded into The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild by a fan to replace Link. The character Sheik, who Princess Zelda has the ability to transform into in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, has been called the most iconic example of female-to-male gender-swapping in gaming, although Sheik has both male and female characteristics.
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Entertainment | Varsity_Spirit | Varsity Spirit, LLC, also known as Varsity, is an American cheerleading company owned by Varsity Brands. Founded in 1974 as the Universal Cheerleaders Association, the company is a manufacturer of apparel for cheerleading and dance teams, organizer of cheerleading competitions, and operator of training camps and sanctioning bodies.
The company's vertical integration of competitive cheerleading has faced criticism, including accusations of anti-competitive and monopolistic practices (including opposition to cheerleading being sanctioned as a sport), conflicts of interest via control of governing bodies, and institutionalizing high financial costs for participation in competitive cheerleading. In 2023 and 2024, Varsity and its previous owners agreed to settle multiple class action lawsuits, including those surrounding high financial costs, and conflicts of interest with the U.S. All Star Federation.
Varsity Spirit was founded by Jeff Webb, a yell leader at the University of Oklahoma contemplating law school. After working as a summer camp instructor for Lawrence "Herkie" Herkimer's National Cheerleaders Association (NCA), he attempted, but failed, to acquire part of the company.In 1974, Webb established the Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA), in an effort to raise the profile of cheerleading, initially by establishing training camps, and later through promotional campaigns and its National College Cheerleading Championship (which was first held in 1978) and its National High School Cheerleading Championship (which was first held in 1980). Cheerleading had seen declines in participation due to the growth of women's sports following the introduction of Title IX.
Webb first operated the company out of his apartment, and only made a profit of US$850 (equivalent to $5,251 in 2023) during his first year of operations. By 2002, Webb estimated that Varsity Spirit held about half of the market, and that 60% of its revenue came from apparel. In 2003, Varsity backed the formation of the U.S. All Star Federation, a sanctioning body for "all-star" cheerleading competitions involving teams from private gyms.
In 2004, Varsity acquired National Spirit Group, owner of the NCA (which Webb estimated to have a 25% market share in 2002), giving it control of the sheer majority of the cheerleading industry. In 2005, it acquired the Knoxville-based Athletic Championships LLC and Premier Athletics LLC. In 2007, it backed the formation of USA Cheer, a non-profit led by Webb which aimed to be a sanctioning body for cheerleading (with a goal to back cheerleading as a proposed Olympic event).
In 2011, Varsity Brands merged with Herff Jones, an Indianapolis-based manufacturer of class rings, caps and gowns, and yearbooks; Webb was named president and COO in December 2012, and the merged company took on the Varsity Brands name in 2014. In 2012, it acquired American Cheerleader magazine from Macfadden Communications Group, with the publishers of Memphis-based teen magazine Justine producing the magazine. Charlesbank Capital Partners acquired Varsity Brands in 2014, after which it began to place a larger focus on club-based "all-star" cheerleading. In 2015, it acquired JAM Brands, which had been the company's main competitor in the 2010s.
In 2016, Varsity Brands sued Star Athletica, a competing manufacturer of cheerleading uniforms established by The Liebe Company (which was formerly contracted with Varsity), for copyright infringement over similarities in designs between their products. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Varsity, establishing that aesthetic elements of a useful article can be protected if they are a copyrightable artistic work, and are identifiable as art when mentally separated from the practical aspects of the item.
In 2017, BSN Sports CEO Adam Blumenfeld replaced Webb as CEO.
In July 2019, the company introduced a new division, "Varsity Pro", which focuses on providing apparel and services for professional cheer and dance teams, such as those of professional sports franchises. The division's first partnership as outfitter was with the NBA's Memphis Grizzlies. It also acquired SA Feather Co. and Stanbury Uniforms to expand into the band market.
On December 9, 2020, Webb announced that he would step down from Varsity. In a 2021 interview with Sportico after the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to recognize the ICU, Webb stated that he had divested himself of Varsity, recently had "a very favorable liquidity event", and "was looking around with what I want to do with this phase of my life." Varsity's former vice president of corporate alliances and business development, Marlene Cota, stated that Webb's role in the company had begun to lessen after the sale to Charlesbank. After his departure, Webb became the new co-publisher and senior news editor of the conservative publication Human Events.
American Cheerleader was the first and largest national teen magazine dedicated to covering sideline and competitive cheerleading. It was founded in 1995 and based in Memphis, Tennessee. Staff included Editor-in-Chief Jackie Martin and Managing Editor Kim Conley. Inspired by the popularity and competitive nature of cheerleading in the early 1990s, publishing executive Michael Weiskopf started a magazine to take advantage of its evolving culture. The first issue was published in New York in January 1995. It was published by Lifestyle Ventures, LLC, and the first issue featured University of Maryland cheerleader Penny Ramsey, who went on to become a castaway in Thailand on the CBS show Survivor in 2002. Special Collector's Editions were produced in February 2005 and February 2010 to commemorate the magazine's 10th and 15th anniversaries. Lifestyle Media, Inc. was acquired by Macfadden Performing Arts Media, LLC in 2006. Varsity Spirit bought the magazine in 2012.American Cheerleader covered training tips for stunting and tumbling, tryout advice, team building activities, beauty, fashion, fitness and how to balance schoolwork and cheer. All issues feature a Cheerleader of the Month, Spotlight Squad and Awesome Athletes. 'Cheerleaders of the Month' were recognized for their talent, academic achievement and community involvement. Past celebrity covers have included Debby Ryan, Erica Joy Allen, Krystyna Krzeminski, Kendall Jenner, Heather Morris, Francia Raisa, Christina Milian, Kirsten Dunst, Mýa, Hilarie Burton, Ashley Tisdale, and Olivia Holt. American Cheerleader has also made its way into every sequel of the Bring It On films.
Their website, Americancheerleader.com, featured cheer news and trends, training tips, featured athletes and step by step videos of stunting, tumbling and cheer skills.
Varsity Spirit has been described as having a monopoly position in cheerleading in the United States, due to extensive vertical integration of apparel businesses, training camps, affiliated gyms, cheerleading competitions, and sanctioning bodies, as well as acquisitions of competitors.Varsity has been accused of engaging in anti-competitive practices; the company signs gyms to multi-year agreements, under which they receive rebates if they exclusively purchase apparel from the company, and participate in Varsity-run competitions. Only Varsity-owned brands are allowed to exhibit and market their apparel at its events, hindering the ability for competitors to do the same. Although there are no restrictions on use of non-Varsity apparel by participants in the competitions proper, in 2010 Webb testified that in at least one competition, teams received more points if they used Varsity-produced props.
Varsity also has effective control of affiliated governing bodies for cheerleading. USA Cheer, a non-profit governing body for cheerleading, was established by Varsity Spirit with a no-interest loan, and is staffed by six contracted Varsity Spirit employees. The U.S. All Star Federation (USASF), a governing body for private cheer and dance squads, was formed in 2003 with financial backing by Varsity Spirit via a no-interest loan. Although Varsity Spirit officially states that it does not own the USASF, its board was effectively controlled by Varsity Spirit by means of six of its 15 board members, and by-laws requiring seven seats to be filled by representatives of a group of Varsity Spirit-controlled cheerleading and dance associations. The company also paid the salary of its president, and its vice president of events and corporate alliances. In 2011, the USASF threatened to ban its members from participating in Varsity-run events if they participate in competing world championships not run by the company. Varsity was also involved in the establishment of the International Cheer Union (ICU). Under a "Stay Smart" scheme, attendees of events were also required to book accommodations with specific providers vouched by Varsity, which were accused of having paid kickbacks to the company.
Varsity Spirit and its affiliates have lobbied against proposals for cheerleading to be sanctioned as a sport, including proposals by California, and Texas's University Interscholastic League (UIL), arguing that this would result in increased oversight and regulation that would be detrimental to its business and self-oversight. In 2015, the UIL announced a pilot "Spirit Championship", whose judges would be trained and provided by Varsity Spirit.In 2010, Webb was called upon as an expert witness in a Title IX case involving Quinnipiac University, which had redirected money out of women's sports to its all-women cheerleading team under the argument that it was a sport. In his testimony, Webb stated that he did not consider cheerleading to be a sport, as he primarily considered Varsity's competitions to be a promotion for its lines of business. A federal judge held that cheerleading "does not qualify as a varsity sport for the purposes of Title IX".
In 2020, a proposed class action lawsuit was filed against Varsity Brands, alleging that it used its "undue influence and control" over affiliated bodies to maintain its monopoly in competitive cheerleading and scholastic apparel, including requiring participation in Varsity-run training camps in order to attend its competitions, participation in its insurance plans, and the aforementioned rebate program, which institutionalized financial costs for participation in competitive cheerleading. Varsity responded to the suit, arguing that they "welcome the kind of competition that enhances the cheer marketplace", and accused competitors of "seeking to chill that marketplace through the Courts. We are contesting this flawed diversion from an otherwise dynamic industry with energy, resources and determination."In March 2023, Varsity Brands agreed to pay $43.5 million to settle one of the antitrust cases, Fusion Elite All Stars, et al. v. Varsity Brands LLC, et al,, targeting "direct purchasers"; under the settlement, Varsity agreed to stop paying the salaries of USASF executives, and prohibit its board members from occupying seats on the USASF board. In addition, the USASF agreed to not allow any one cheerleading body from controlling more than 40% of the voting seats on its board. In May 2024, Varsity settled Jessica Jones, et al., v. Varsity Brands, LLC, et al., with the company and its prior owners agreeing to pay out $82.5 million to "indirect" purchasers who paid for registration fees or purchased apparel from Varsity. As part of the settlement, Varsity also agreed to no longer require competitors to participate in its training camps, phase out the "Stay Smart" scheme, and to restrict the sharing of confidential information from other USASF members to Varsity..
In September 2020, USA Today published a report accusing governing bodies tied to Varsity Spirit of allowing 180 individuals (including coaches, choreographers, and others) indicted for child sexual abuse — 140 of whom having been convicted — to continue participating in activities. It found that their list of blacklisted individuals only contained 21 people, and was only amended and expanded following reports made by the paper.In September 2022, a federal lawsuit was filed in Memphis against Varsity Brands, Varsity Spirit, and the estate of Scott Foster (a gym owner who had killed himself while under investigation for child sexual abuse), by six alleged victims of Foster. The suit alleged negligence in violation of the Protecting Young Victims from Sexual Abuse and Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017, including that Varsity made no effort to prohibit Foster from attending its sanctioned events, even after his suspension from the USASF in 2018.
All Varsity Spirit competitions follow a shared scoring system. This system varies slightly per team depending on the age, level, and coed of the division. Unlike previous seasons the 2021-2022 scoring system is based on 50 points instead of 100. This resulted in major shifts in the allocation of points within the sections of the cheerleading routines.Before the 2021-2022 season, the scoring system in Varsity Spirit and USASF governed competitions was straightforward. The scoring followed the main divisions of an all star cheerleading routine, stunts, pyramid, jumps, tosses, running tumbling, standing tumbling and dance. Each of these sections were allocated ten points, five for difficulty and five for execution except for dance. The scoring also allocated ten points for both performance and routine composition, five points to for stunt and pyramid creativity, and five points for stunt quantity. Lastly for coed teams five points were used to score coed stunts, non-coed teams were given a five. This scoring results in 100 possible points without deductions.
The 2021-2022 season scoring system changed most dramatically in that the major sections of the routine were no longer scored evenly. Stunts, pyramid, standing tumbling and running tumbling are allocated eight points, four for difficulty and four for execution; tosses and jumps were allocated four, two for difficulty and two for execution; and dance was only given two points. The amount allocated to routine composition dropped to two points while performance was dropped entirely, instead there are now two points allocated to a similar category, overall impression. Stunt and pyramid creativity are now allocated one point each. Another large change, mainly for all girl teams, is the change of the scoring sheet from coed teams to not coed teams. Meaning, coed teams still get scored on their coed stunts, unless they are an international team, however, the all-girl and international coed teams have the coed scoring section replaced with stunt quantity. This scoring results in 50 possible points which is doubled to obtain 100 possible points.
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Entertainment | White_label | A white label record is a vinyl record with white labels attached. There are several variations each with a different purpose. Variations include test pressings, white label promos, and plain white labels.
Test pressings, usually with test pressing written on the label, with catalogue number, artist and recording time or date, are the first vinyl discs made at the factory. Such discs are produced in very small quantities (usually no more than 5 or 6 copies) to evaluate the quality of the disc before mass production begins. A review of the test pressing may expose problems with the tape to disc transfer (mastering) and helps to ensure that the defective discs do not reach the public.In the United States, the term white label promo (often abbreviated as WLP) refers to a promotional pressing with a label that has mostly the same text and label logo/artwork as the commercial label, but with a white background instead of the color label or artwork found on commercial pressings. These are usually pressed in quantities of only a few thousand per title. Such copies may also contain biographies or pictures of the musical artists. Promotional copies are for distribution to journalists, music distributors or radio stations in order to assess consumer opinion.White label discs can be used to anonymously promote new artists or upcoming albums by veteran artists. In some cases plain white labels are issued to conceal artist identities (examples of this include songs by Traci Lords and La Toya Jackson), whose record companies issued white labels so that DJs would have no pre-conceived notions about the music from the artist name. Many dance music producers press copies of white labels in order to test crowd response in dance clubs to their own musical productions.Today, white labels are usually produced in small amounts (fewer than 300) by small record companies or DJs and are most popular with club and hip-hop music DJs. In the early 1990s, hardcore techno and house artists created tracks in home or local studios and had five-hundred or a few thousand singles pressed on 12" white labels, which were easy to sell at dance music record stores.Steve Beckett of Warp Records recalls that "shops would take fifty white labels off you for five pounds each, no problem. Dance music was all imports, then people in Britain started doing it for themselves, and their tracks started to get better than the tunes in America." Record labels like Warp, and Shut Up and Dance, were begun as white-label enterprises, providing cutting-edge dance music to pirate radio stations and music stores.
Some white labels may contain unauthorized remixes or other recordings which are not licensed for release. Recordings not authorized by the artist or label are often called "bootlegs". White labels are referred to as "promos" (short for "promotional copies") that many top-name DJs receive and play weeks or months prior to the day of general release to the public. As artists using samples pay high fees for the privilege of such, they must be able to gauge the market potential of their tracks prior to approval. Recently, smaller promo services offer record companies a more economical means of distribution although these companies may not have the means to properly protect releases from illegal copying.The industry itself seems to be aware of this necessity and white labels are commonly accepted as a necessary evil within the industry, which has only prosecuted a small number of those artists using white labeled pressings of uncleared samples and compositions.
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Government | Continuity_of_government | Continuity of government (COG) is the principle of establishing defined procedures that allow a government to continue its essential operations in case of a catastrophic event such as nuclear war.
Continuity of government was developed by the British government before and during World War II to counter threats, such as that of the Luftwaffe bombing during the Battle of Britain. The need for continuity of government plans gained new urgency with nuclear proliferation.
During and after the Cold War countries developed such plans to avoid (or minimize) confusion and disorder due to a power vacuum in the aftermath of a nuclear attack.
In the US, COG is no longer limited to nuclear emergencies; the Continuity of Operations Plan was activated following the September 11 attacks.
During the years following the federation of Australia in 1901, several locations were considered for the national capital. One of the criteria used to assess sites was that they needed to be inland so that they could not be attacked from the sea. It was also believed that locations away from the coast would have a lower incidence of disease. During the Cold War the Office of National Assessments believed that it was unlikely that Australian cities would be attacked by the Soviet Union during a nuclear war.The modern Australian Government has plans to enable the continuity of government. As of 2008, these formed part of 'Plan Mercator', which the government has described as aiming "to minimise the impact of a national security emergency on critical government operations and provide for the rapid resumption of 'near normal' government business under alternate arrangements until normal operations can be resumed".
Under the Australian system of government, there is not necessarily a requirement to maintain the Cabinet in a crisis. If the Prime Minister was killed in a disaster, the Governor-General would need to appoint their successor. A national unity government could also be formed in a major crisis.
A range of legislation, including the Defence Act 1903 and several health bills, include provisions that can be activated in response to emergencies. There are also plans for the Parliament of Australia to operate from another location if it is unable to sit at Parliament House in Canberra. These plans are classified.
The Canberra Times has reported that an Australian Government building in the Canberra suburb of Symonston houses communications systems that would be used to support the continuity of government if Plan Mercator was activated. The building was completed in 2007, and its secret function was disclosed as part of a job advertisement in 2008.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal and most of the state and territory parliaments cancelled scheduled sittings from March 2020. Federal parliamentary committees continued to operate virtually. The federal parliament met with only the number of members necessary to form a quorum present on several occasions between March and June 2020, and resumed full sittings from August that year. The arrangements in place from August allowed members of parliament who were unable to travel to Canberra to participate virtually, but these members were unable to vote in proceedings.
Prime Minister Scott Morrison arranged to be secretly appointed to hold several ministerial positions during 2020 and 2021, justifying his appointment as the Minister for Finance and Minister for Health as being necessary in case the ministers for portfolios were affected by COVID-19 and unable to perform their duties. Morrison's appointment as Minister for Health was approved in March 2020 by the National Security Committee of Cabinet as part of measures taken in response to the pandemic, but was not publicly announced. His subsequent appointment to the other ministries was not known to other members of the government. An inquiry held into the matter during 2022 that was headed by Former High Court justice Virginia Bell found that Morrison had not needed to hold these ministries, as he could have been appointed "in a matter of minutes" if the ministers had been incapacitated. Morrison did not use the powers available to him as Finance or Health minister.
Canada built numerous nuclear bunkers across the country, nicknamed "Diefenbunkers" in a play on the last name of then-Prime Minister John Diefenbaker. In 2016, the Privy Council Office made an agreement with the Department of National Defence to open two bunkers for government officials amid the ongoing North Korean nuclear crisis.The People's Republic of China (PRC) once operated Underground Project 131, intended to be the PLA headquarters in Hubei during a nuclear conflict. Built due to the Sino-Soviet split during that portion of the Cold War, in 1981, the Project 131 site was turned over to the civilian authorities of the prefecture-level city of Xianning, where it is located.The K-116 facility under Zlíchov hill in western Prague was designated to house the Czechoslovak government in case of nuclear attack (together with the K-9 facility in Jihlava) and might still be used as the emergency headquarters of the Czech government and military.During the Cold War, Denmark built two bunker complexes, named REGAN Vest and REGAN Øst (Danish: "REGeringsANlæg", translated: "Government Complex West and Government Complex East"), in Jutland and Zealand respectively. The idea was to have half of the government and the royal family in one bunker, and the other half in the other, allowing continuity of government, even if one of the bunkers were destroyed or cut off.The Centre d'opération des forces aériennes stratégiques (COFAS) is a hardened command centre for French nuclear forces at Taverny Air Base in Taverny, Val d'Oise. The alternate national command center is located at Mont Verdun near Lyon.The hardened headquarters of Force océanique stratégique (FOST), France's nuclear SSBN fleet, is at Brest, Finistère.
Germany operated a government bunker (Regierungsbunker) to house the German government, parliament and all federal personnel needed to keep the government working in the event of war or severe crisis. It was decommissioned in 1997.In Ireland, the National Security Committee (NSC) is the conduit for officials to communicate with the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) and/or cabinet members if the normal channel of communication with their minister became unavailable. Drafts of emergency powers legislation have been drawn up in secret, including legislation to deal with circumstances such as an attack on cabinet involving numerous deaths.During the period of the Cold War, it was envisaged that cabinet ministers, senior civil servants and military advisers would use an underground nuclear bunker at Custume Barracks in Athlone in the event of a nuclear exchange. The bunker was equipped with a command and control centre with communications equipment : which had a hotline to the British government in Whitehall : a map room pointing out important areas for protection, kitchen, bedroom and bathroom facilities.
As of December 2003 an underground national crisis management center was being constructed at an undisclosed location in the Judaean Mountains under Jerusalem. Another command and control bunker is being built as part of the new Prime Minister's Office complex in Givat Ram.According to Constitution of Poland in case of death or inability to discharging duties of the President, his duties are discharged by Marshal of the Sejm (or if they are unable, the Marshal of the Senate).After Smolensk air disaster in 2010 a lot of the highest state and army offices were emptied. Their duties were automatically taken over by respective deputies.
The New Zealand government believes the most likely disaster scenario to affect the government is a large earthquake in Wellington. The government has plans to move Parliament and essential staff to Devonport Naval Base in Auckland if such an event occurs.The website of the Governor-General of New Zealand notes that their constitutional role is to "maintain the legitimacy and continuity of government by ensuring there is always a government in office with a democratic mandate to govern".
The New Zealand National Crisis Management Centre is located under the "Beehive" building in Wellington. An Alternate National Crisis Management Centre is in Auckland, and would be activated if the facility in Wellington was damaged, if multiple crises were occurring or if the government is required to relocate to Auckland.
The Norwegian government operates a nuclear bunker called Sentralanlegget in Buskerud County. The bunker is meant to accommodate the Norwegian royal family and the government in case of a nuclear/military attack on the nation, and also function as a wartime headquarters. There is also a bunker beneath Høyblokka in downtown Oslo.In the public domain very little is known about Russia's COG plans. One sprawling underground facility residing in tunnels cut into Mount Yamantau is likely to be related to the survival of Russia's government, given its size and decades long construction history, with a construction start during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev (1964:82). KGB defector Colonel Oleg Gordievsky states that an organization, known as Directorate 15, was (or is) tasked with building and maintaining a network of hundreds of underground command bunkers for the Soviet leadership; this includes the vast site beneath Yamantau Mountain, which is often called Mezhgorye / Межго́рье after the closed city that is located nearby. However, there is speculation, due to its proximity to Chelyabinsk-70, that Yamantau is a 400-square-mile underground complex which houses nuclear warheads, missiles, launch controls, and several nuclear weapons factories designed to continue production after a hypothetical nuclear war begins.The second command and control center in the Urals, after Yamantau, is similarly speculated to be underground and located near, or under, Kosvinsky Kamen. The site is believed to host the Russian Strategic Rocket Forces alternate command post, a post for the general staff built to compensate for the vulnerability of older Soviet era command posts in the Moscow region. In spite of this, the primary command posts for the Strategic Rocket Forces remains Kuntsevo in Moscow and the secondary is the Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals. The facility at Kosvinsky, finished in early 1996, was designed to resist US earth-penetrating warheads and serves a similar role as the American Cheyenne Mountain Complex.
Further command centers, according to globalsecurity.org, include one near Chekhov, which is the Russian General Staff wartime command post, buried deep underground, and Sharapovo(ru) about 80 kilometres (50 mi) south of Moscow, built in the 1950s, Sharapovo is believed to have been the primary backup command center for the Soviet era leadership. Both Chekhov and Sharapovo are each suggested to have the capability to accommodate about 30,000 individuals, As an alternative to Sharapovo, a secondary political leadership base is located at Chaadayevka, some 650 kilometers southeast of Moscow near the city of Penza.
There is also said to be as many as 12 underground levels beneath the Russian capital of Moscow to protect the government in the Kremlin, known as the Main Directorate of special programs of the President (Glavnoye Upravlenie Specialnih Program: GUSP) (ru) the direct successor of the 15th Directorate of the KGB, which was established in 1977, GUSP is said to oversee, amongst other sites, a parallel track line alongside the Moscow metro, known as the 'Kremlin line' Metro-2 or D-6 to be used in an emergency. Two destinations of this system are suggested to be the old KGB headquarters, now the FSB headquarters, at Lubyanka Square, and the second being regarded as an enormous underground leadership bunker adjacent to Moscow State University. Another alleged subterranean destination, apart from the aforementioned underground town at Ramenki/Moscow State University is Vnukovo-2 airport. Despite official Russian state ambiguity, it is speculated that many of the Moscow bunkers are linked by an underground railway line.
In case of war, the Riksdag can convene somewhere else than in the capital, and if necessary, a War Delegation will replace the Riksdag. The War Delegation consists of the Speaker and 50 members of the Riksdag. The government can put a number of enabling acts in force to regulate for example rationing, export and seizing of property. If the government is unable to carry out its duties the Riksdag may decide on the formation of a new government. Likewise, if the Riksdag and the War Delegation are unable to carry out its duties, the government can assume the powers of the Riksdag, but with some limitations.During the Cold War, the Klara skyddsrum ("Klara shelter" or "Klara bunker") was built underneath Stockholm. The bunker is designed to accommodate two thirds of the government and between 8,000 and 12,000 civilians in the case of a military attack on Stockholm. It is designed as a very large, two-story oval, with multiple entrances. During peacetime, parts of it are used as a parking garage. Sweden built over 65,000 fallout shelters in regular houses, and every county had at least one large hard-rock underground bunker that controlled a number of smaller bunkers that were located in the municipalities.
There is little public knowledge about continuity of government in Turkey. The cabinet and presidential offices, based in the capital of Ankara, have secondary sites in Istanbul and İzmir.The primary British COG headquarters is at the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall. The Central Government War Headquarters was previously maintained in a quarry complex near Corsham, Wiltshire. The above-ground support facility was RAF Rudloe Manor.Service command centres are Northwood for the Royal Navy Trident SSBN force, and RAF High Wycombe for the Royal Air Force.
Continuity of the national government was first threatened in late 1776, when British forces advanced toward the Continental capital at Philadelphia. On December 9, the Continental Congress passed a resolution in anticipation of a British capture:Resolved: That in case this Congress shall be under the necessity of removing from Philadelphia, it shall be adjourned to Baltimore.
The Congress was adjourned as planned three days later. Other relocations followed during the course of the Revolutionary War.
For most of its existence, the United States operated without a standing continuity plan. When British forces burned Washington in 1814, Secretary of State James Monroe received only a few hours' notice to remove the government records. Although his staff saved many valuable records, much was nonetheless destroyed, and the next administration encountered a great deal of confusion.
In 1952, President Truman ordered all federal offices to develop their own continuity plans for the event of a civil defense emergency. Plans have been maintained and adapted since then, at times requiring the construction of secret facilities such as the emergency Congress facility in Greenbrier County, West Virginia. The current continuity policy is defined in National Security Policy Directive 51 and its implementation plan. The continuity plan was activated for the first time during the September 11, 2001 attacks and then again during the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Presidential Emergency Action Documents (PEADs) are draft classified executive orders, proclamations, and messages to Congress that are prepared for the President of the United States to exercise or expand powers in anticipation of a range of emergency hypothetical worst-case scenarios, so that they are ready to sign and put into effect the moment one of those scenarios comes to pass.
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which officials of the United States federal government assume the powers and duties of the office of president of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office. It was adopted in 1947, and last revised in 2006. The designated survivor is an individual in the line of succession, chosen to stay away from events such as State of the Union addresses and presidential inaugurations.
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],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 56,
"mentions": [
"PLA"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 57,
"mentions": [
"Hubei",
"Xianning",
"People's Republic of China (PRC)",
"prefecture-level city of Xianning"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 58,
"mentions": [
"1981"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 59,
"mentions": [
"Zlíchov hill"
],
"type": "LOC"
},
{
"id": 60,
"mentions": [
"Czech government",
"Czechoslovak",
"Czech",
"Czechoslovak government",
"Prague"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 61,
"mentions": [
"K-9 facility",
"K-9"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 62,
"mentions": [
"Jihlava",
"K-9 facility in Jihlava"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 63,
"mentions": [
"Denmark",
"Danish"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 64,
"mentions": [
"Government Complex West",
"Government Complex East",
"REGAN Vest",
"REGAN Øst"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 65,
"mentions": [
"New Zealand",
"Governor-General of New Zealand",
"New Zealand National Crisis Management Centre",
"Jutland",
"Zealand"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 66,
"mentions": [
"half"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 67,
"mentions": [
"one"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 68,
"mentions": [
"Centre d'opération des forces aériennes stratégiques",
"COFAS"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 69,
"mentions": [
"French",
"France",
"France's nuclear SSBN fleet",
"French nuclear forces"
],
"type": "NORP"
},
{
"id": 70,
"mentions": [
"Lyon",
"Taverny, Val d'Oise",
"Val d'Oise",
"Taverny Air Base",
"Taverny"
],
"type": "FAC"
},
{
"id": 71,
"mentions": [
"Val"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 72,
"mentions": [
"Mont Verdun"
],
"type": "FAC"
},
{
"id": 73,
"mentions": [
"Force océanique stratégique (FOST)",
"SSBN",
"FOST"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 74,
"mentions": [
"Brest",
"Brest, Finistère",
"Finistère"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 75,
"mentions": [
"Regierungsbunker",
"Germany operated a government bunker (Regierungsbunker) to house the German government"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 76,
"mentions": [
"1997.In"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 77,
"mentions": [
"Ireland"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 78,
"mentions": [
"Taoiseach",
"Prime Minister"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 79,
"mentions": [
"Custume Barracks"
],
"type": "FAC"
},
{
"id": 80,
"mentions": [
"Athlone",
"Custume Barracks in Athlone"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 81,
"mentions": [
"As of December 2003",
"December 2003"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 82,
"mentions": [
"Jerusalem",
"Judaean Mountains"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 83,
"mentions": [
"Givat Ram"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 84,
"mentions": [
"Constitution of Poland"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 85,
"mentions": [
"Sejm",
"Marshal of the Sejm"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 86,
"mentions": [
"Smolensk air disaster",
"Smolensk"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 87,
"mentions": [
"Wellington"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 88,
"mentions": [
"Devonport Naval Base in Auckland",
"Devonport Naval Base",
"Auckland"
],
"type": "FAC"
},
{
"id": 89,
"mentions": [
"Alternate National Crisis Management Centre",
"National Crisis Management Centre"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 90,
"mentions": [
"Sentralanlegget",
"Sentralanlegget in Buskerud County"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 91,
"mentions": [
"Høyblokka"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 92,
"mentions": [
"Oslo"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 93,
"mentions": [
"Russian",
"Russia"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 94,
"mentions": [
"Mount Yamantau",
"Yamantau Mountain",
"Yamantau",
"Mezhgorye",
"Mezhgorye / Межго́рье"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 95,
"mentions": [
"decades"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 96,
"mentions": [
"decades long construction history"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 97,
"mentions": [
"Leonid Brezhnev",
"Brezhnev"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 98,
"mentions": [
"RAF Rudloe Manor",
"Central Government War Headquarters",
"FSB",
"Glavnoye Upravlenie Specialnih Program",
"15th Directorate of the KGB",
"previously maintained in a quarry complex near Corsham, Wiltshire",
"KGB",
"Directorate 15",
"GUSP",
"FSB headquarters",
"Glavnoye Upravlenie Specialnih"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 99,
"mentions": [
"Colonel Oleg Gordievsky",
"Oleg Gordievsky"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 100,
"mentions": [
"hundreds"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 101,
"mentions": [
"400-square-mile"
],
"type": "QUANTITY"
},
{
"id": 102,
"mentions": [
"second"
],
"type": "ORDINAL"
},
{
"id": 103,
"mentions": [
"Kosvinsky Mountain in the Urals",
"Urals"
],
"type": "LOC"
},
{
"id": 104,
"mentions": [
"Kosvinsky",
"Penza",
"Kosvinsky Mountain",
"Kosvinsky Kamen",
"Chelyabinsk-70"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 105,
"mentions": [
"Russian General Staff",
"Moscow",
"Moscow bunkers",
"Russian Strategic Rocket Forces",
"Russia's COG plans",
"Ramenki/Moscow State University",
"Kremlin",
"Moscow region",
"Ramenki",
"Russia's government",
"Moscow State University",
"Soviet leadership",
"Moscow metro"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 106,
"mentions": [
"Russian Strategic Rocket Forces",
"Strategic Rocket Forces"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 107,
"mentions": [
"Kuntsevo",
"Kuntsevo in Moscow"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 108,
"mentions": [
"early 1996"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 109,
"mentions": [
"American Cheyenne Mountain Complex",
"Cheyenne Mountain Complex"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 110,
"mentions": [
"Chekhov"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 111,
"mentions": [
"about 80 kilometres"
],
"type": "QUANTITY"
},
{
"id": 112,
"mentions": [
"1950s"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 113,
"mentions": [
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"Sharapovo"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 114,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 115,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 116,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "QUANTITY"
},
{
"id": 117,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 118,
"mentions": [
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"15th Directorate of the KGB"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 119,
"mentions": [
"1977"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 120,
"mentions": [
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"Kremlin line",
"Metro-2"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 121,
"mentions": [
"Two"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 122,
"mentions": [
"old KGB headquarters",
"KGB headquarters",
"Lubyanka Square"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 123,
"mentions": [
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"Riksdag"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 124,
"mentions": [
"50"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 125,
"mentions": [
"Klara"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 126,
"mentions": [
"Klara shelter",
"Stockholm",
"Klara bunker",
"Klara skyddsrum"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 127,
"mentions": [
"two thirds"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 128,
"mentions": [
"between 8,000 and 12,000"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 129,
"mentions": [
"Sweden"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 130,
"mentions": [
"65,000"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 131,
"mentions": [
"at least one"
],
"type": "CARDINAL"
},
{
"id": 132,
"mentions": [
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"Ankara",
"Istanbul",
"cabinet and presidential offices, based in the capital of Ankara",
"capital of Ankara",
"İzmir"
],
"type": "GPE"
},
{
"id": 133,
"mentions": [
"Corsham, Wiltshire",
"Wiltshire",
"Corsham"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 134,
"mentions": [
"Northwood",
"Royal Navy Trident SSBN force",
"Royal Air Force",
"RAF High Wycombe"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 135,
"mentions": [
"Royal Navy Trident",
"Royal Navy Trident SSBN force"
],
"type": "ORG"
},
{
"id": 136,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "ORDINAL"
},
{
"id": 137,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 138,
"mentions": [
"Continental capital at Philadelphia",
"Philadelphia",
"Baltimore"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 139,
"mentions": [
"December 9"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 140,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 141,
"mentions": [
"three days later"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 142,
"mentions": [
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"Revolutionary War"
],
"type": "EVENT"
},
{
"id": 143,
"mentions": [
"1814"
],
"type": "DATE"
},
{
"id": 144,
"mentions": [
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"Secretary of State James Monroe"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 145,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "TIME"
},
{
"id": 146,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "TIME"
},
{
"id": 147,
"mentions": [
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"President of the United States",
"Truman",
"incumbent president",
"president",
"President Truman"
],
"type": "PERSON"
},
{
"id": 148,
"mentions": [
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"West Virginia",
"Greenbrier County"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 149,
"mentions": [
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"nuclear conflict",
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"nuclear exchange",
"nuclear emergencies",
"nuclear/military attack",
"nuclear bunkers",
"nuclear forces",
"nuclear SSBN fleet",
"nuclear proliferation",
"nuclear attack",
"nuclear bunker",
"nuclear crisis",
"nuclear warheads"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 150,
"mentions": [
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"legislation",
"emergency powers legislation"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 151,
"mentions": [
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"emergency headquarters of the Czech government and military"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 152,
"mentions": [
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],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 153,
"mentions": [
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"65,000 fallout shelters",
"large hard-rock underground bunker",
"bunkers that were located in the municipalities",
"over 65,000 fallout shelters in regular houses"
],
"type": "MISC"
},
{
"id": 154,
"mentions": [
"PEADs",
"Presidential Emergency Action Documents"
],
"type": "MISC"
}
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{
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{
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},
{
"head": "Russia",
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},
{
"head": "Klara skyddsrum",
"relation": "Country",
"tail": "Sweden"
},
{
"head": "Sweden",
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}
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] |
Government | Fall_of_the_Derg_regime | The fall of the Derg was a military campaign that resulted in the defeat of the ruling Marxist:Leninist military junta, the Derg, by the rebel coalition Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) on 28 May 1991 in Addis Ababa, ending the Ethiopian Civil War. The Derg took power after deposing Emperor Haile Selassie and the Solomonic dynasty, an imperial dynasty of Ethiopia that began in 1270. The Derg suffered from insurgency with different factions, and separatist rebel groups since their early rule, beginning with the Ethiopian Civil War. The 1983:1985 famine, the Red Terror, and resettlement and villagization made the Derg unpopular with the majority of Ethiopians tending to support insurgent groups like the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).
With the establishment of People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in 1987, the Derg, led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, was subdued by rebel groups due to lack of support from the Soviet Union since 1990.
One account of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) written in 1980s provides little information about their struggle against the Derg regime, but not as their political ideologies. Dieter Beisel, Reise ins Land der Rebellen, Rowohlt Verlag, Hamburg, 1989, was prominent firsthand journalistic work based on the events surrounding the rebel groups.In September 1962, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under Emperor Haile Selassie as the ninth province of the Ethiopian Empire after being ruled as Italy's colony and then put under British administration during the Second World War in 1941. As a result, the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) was formed in Sudan in 1958 to fight for independence. Haile Selassie regime became more authoritarian; political parties were persecuted and freedom of speech and press generally suppressed, and native language was banned in favor of Amharic language.Although Eritrean resistance prevailed throughout the condition with respect to little importance, the movement regarded the turning point in formation of armed separatist groups and movement. Muslim herdsmen lowlander often cemented separatist movement while Christian in the highlands of Eritrea favored to join with Ethiopia. In July 1960, the ELM formed as the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in Cairo by majority Muslims. The number of attack toward the imperial Ethiopian government went from 4 in 1962 to 27 in 1966. The ELF then grew its wing, the Eritrean Liberation Army in early 1967, forcing the Ethiopian government to deploy two brigades into three-phased counterinsurgency operation codenamed Wegaw (lit. "trash").
The Provisional Military Administrative Committee, also known as, the Derg seized power following a coup d'état of Emperor Haile Selassie, ending the empire administration and put the country into military dictatorship regime in 1975. Upon neutralizing ELM, in mid-1960s, three factions were reorganize to establish the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) in 1974, and its military wing Eritrean Liberation Front Army (EPLA). In 1977, the committee elected Mengistu Haile Mariam as the chairman of the Derg while disengaging military posts in Eritrea. The EPLF and ELF launched series offensive in control of most parts of Eritrea other than Asmara, Massawa, Asseb, Barentu, and Senafe. In February 1975, another insurgency group the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) was formed in response to withdrawal of these areas.Their first attacked took place in August 1975, and the organization steadily supported by local peasants and the populace as whole. During early period of formation, the group fought with multidirectional rivalry in lieu of the central government. In 1978, the Derg commenced formal invasion of Ogaden region by Somalia, which claimed the region into integral part of Greater Somalia.
The EPLF and ELF were successful in seizing 80% of Eritrea, but the Derg as soon as diverted their attention to Eritrea after victory against Somalia, fearing the loss of Red Sea in isolation of Ethiopia. In early 1978, they organized 90,000 powerful Second Revolutionary Army (SRA) and launched multi-sided attacks against EPLF and ELF. The Derg achieved control of southern and central Eritrea since their June 1978 military operation, and resumed offensives in November 1978 to capture Agordat, Afabet and Keren.
The Derg secured road connecting Massawa with Asmara, but heavily assaulted while besieging fortification of EPLA by June 1983. Although the government made significant investment to infrastructure-rehabilitation projects and villagization of rural population by early 1980s, the Red Terror, and 1983:1985 famine disesteemed the Derg unpopularly, especially from the whole population, and conversely, the opponent rebel groups gained broad support. The Derg also accused relief organizations for the famine for assisting the insurgent groups. By the 1984, the TPLF controlled most of rural area of Tigray, while Adigrat and Shire were de facto under siege. Situation were capsized when EPLF ceased support to TPLF by blockade of route with Sudan in 1985. The Derg advanced its military to Eritrea, and the Tigrayan insurgency were emboldened for potential threat.
The EPLF took strategic entrance after year breakup of operations Stealth Offensive and Red Star campaign in June 1982, and retook Teseney, and Aligider, thus captured land connection between Sahel Redoubt and Sudan in January 1984. Subsequently, they retook military outpost of Ethiopia in Alghena area, on the coast of Red Sea a week later. By May 1986, the Asmara:Massawa road destroyed, with air bases and artillery was burned by the insurgent.
In September 1987, Mengistu proclaimed Ethiopia as a socialist republic officially named "People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia", and the Derg became Ethiopian Worker's Party. The same year, the Amhara anti-government opposition groups known as the Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement (EPDM) was formed. Together with TPLF, they established coalition known as the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPDRF) in 1989, with Meles Zenawi serving a chairman of both the TPLF and EPDM. Mengistu banned the Ethiopian media from using the term glasnost and perestroika, defying Mikhail Gorbachev who was believed has not fondness for him. Gorbachev sent communist conservatives with military men in Moscow to aid with the rate of 1 billion dollars in the next three consecutive years.
20,000 Soviet troops were surrendered to EPLF when they attempt infiltrating Afabet, which shocked Gorbachev to turn the decision. He ultimately told to Mengistu that he would do not have opportunity to deal equipments and ceasing by 1990. By the end of decade, the insurgents acceded the importance of mixed economy, multi-party democracy, and open society over socialist dogma in order to aid defeating the Derg. These ideologues would concur with close the United States allies. In early February 1990, EPLF successful controlled Massawa, de-linking the road of Mengistu's army in Asmara and central Eritrea. In early 1990, Mengistu provided emigration of Ethiopian Jews to Israel. The Israeli lobbying campaign peaked on behalf of Mengistu with the February's visit to Israeli foreign minister official to Washington. Many Jewish organizations and leaders even from US Congress discerned Mengistu's task in the lobbying effort.
On 5 March 1990, Mengistu delivered lengthy speech to address threats in the country and beseeching reforms. From 17 to 21 January 1991, the EPRDF held its first congress in Tigray, which was published on 10 March containing backward old fashioned Marxist rhetoric: advocating "People's Republic" dominated by "workers and peasants" in repudiation of "capitalists with foreign sponsorships" as well as "feudals". Meles concerned about cooperation with the Oromo Liberation Front about future of Ethiopia, which had almost odd coordinations including harassing settlers, abduction relief workers and the Derg outposts. At the end of January 1991, the EPRDF launched campaign to liberate Amhara region codenamed "Operation Tewedros". In early March 1991, the Afar Liberation Front became an ally of EPRDF without formal joining. In the same month, they captured Bahir Dar, through Gojjam and Blue Nile, crossing Wollo province via capital Dessie. By this time, the Derg had opted to resistance.
They paved to Shewa and Welega to Addis Ababa; in April, they took Oromo dominated territory including the capital of Welega, Nekemte, and moved to Gimbi, by which OLF and EPRDF gained mutual harmony. On 27 May, they had almost controlled the southwest cities such as Jimma, Agaro and Gambela, amid London conference. The Derg authority were immediately fell in disorder, evacuated from the area. On 28 May, the EPRDF took control of Addis Ababa; Mengistu and some other the Derg officials fled the country, or arrested. Mengistu fled to Zimbabwe, where he still lives.
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Government | Fullmetal_Alchemist_(film) | Fullmetal Alchemist is a 2017 Japanese science fantasy action film directed by Fumihiko Sori, starring Ryosuke Yamada, Tsubasa Honda and Dean Fujioka and based on the manga series of the same name by Hiromu Arakawa, covering the first four volumes of the original storyline. It was released in Japan by Warner Bros. Pictures on 1 December 2017. The theme song of the film, "Kimi no Soba ni Iru yo", is performed by Misia. Two sequels were released in 2022: Fullmetal Alchemist: The Revenge of Scar and Fullmetal Alchemist: The Final Alchemy.
In the fictional country of Amestris, children Edward Elric and his younger brother Alphonse live in a rural town with their mother Trisha while self-learning alchemy. When the brothers commit the taboo act of Human Transmutation to resurrect Trisha after she dies of illness, it backfires and they face the consequences via the Law of Equivalent Exchange: Edward loses his left leg, while Alphonse is dragged into the Gate of Truth. Edward sacrifices his right arm to save his brother's soul and bind it to a suit of armor. His missing limbs are replaced with "automail" prosthetics made by the town's automail mechanic whose granddaughter, Winry Rockbell, is the brothers' childhood friend.Edward receives an invitation from Colonel Roy Mustang to join the military. After becoming the country's youngest State Alchemist with the title "Fullmetal Alchemist", he and Alphonse begin their quest to find the legendary Philosopher's Stone that can restore their bodies. Years later, the brothers, now teenagers, receive help from Major General Hakuro after another failed attempt to find the stone. Hakuro introduces them to Shou Tucker, a bio-alchemy authority who obtained his State Alchemist credentials by creating a talking chimera. Tucker points them to Dr. Tim Marcoh, who created a Philosopher's Stone prior to going into hiding.
When Edward and Winry find Marcoh, he is murdered by Lust, an assassin. Upon return, Edward and Alphonse are horrified to discover that Tucker has transmuted his young daughter Nina, and his dog together to create a human talking chimera in a bid not to lose his State Alchemist credentials. They have Tucker arrested, though not before he tries to turn Alphonse against Edward, causing the brothers to fight. Edward and Mustang's close friend Major Maes Hughes makes a disturbing discovery from Marcoh's notes, but is killed by Lust's associate Envy. Using Marcoh's notes, Edward is led to the clandestine Fifth Laboratory, where he finds the now-insane Tucker holding Alphonse and Winry hostage. When Edward learns that Philosopher's Stones are unethically created from human lives, he has a breakdown, realizing he can no longer depend on that method.
Lust kills Tucker, revealing herself as a homunculus. Hakuro reveals himself as their partner, divulging that the military made Philosopher's Stones using human hostages. He activates a Mannequin Soldier homunculi army with the Stones but is killed by them. As the military destroys the Mannequins, Mustang kills Lust and tears out the Philosopher's Stone that was powering her body. He gives Edward the stone so he can restore Alphonse but the brothers refuse, now knowing how they are made. Instead, Edward uses the stone to appear before his brother's corporeal body at the Gate of Truth and promises to find another way to restore him.
In a mid-credit scene, Envy is revealed to have survived Mustang's attack as its true parasitic form escapes from its human body's charred remains.
The film was originally planned to be produced in 2013 but because of low budget and also technology, it was delayed until it was officially announced for production in May 2016. According to the director's press conference in March 2017:[S]ince the main characters are the two brothers, where there is Ed, there will always be Al. Even just based on that, the amount of CG used becomes enormous. In this work, I’m using a technology that was used in Hollywood movies such as The Avengers. We’re using a lot [of] new techniques that were never used in Japanese movies before..."
Since the original story consists of 27 volumes, I cut it down in to two hours, but we will stay faithful to the manga. ... I don’t plan to change the setting, the world view, and make a different story... Of course we will have the philosopher's stone...[ in the story].
On adapting the source material, Fumihiko Sori said, "I want to create a style that follows the original manga as much as possible. The cast is entirely Japanese, but the cultural background is Europe. However, it's a style that doesn't represent a specific race or country." Regarding the faithfulness of the adaptation, which has characters of non-Japanese ethnicity, the director said, "There will never be a scene in which a character says something that would identify him/her as Japanese."
Sori told Oricon he has a deep affection for the story that tells the "truth of living," and said, "It is my dearest wish to turn this wonderful story into a film, and it is not an exaggeration to say that I am living for this reason." He added that he "wants to create a wonderful film that uses techniques that challenge Hollywood," and noted that nowadays Japanese filmmaking techniques have progressed greatly.
Principal photography took place in Italy. Shooting was spotted in Volterra (identified as Reole from 06 to 12) on the first week of June and some scenes continued filming in Japan from June and finished on 26 August 2016.
Japanese VFX company OXYBOT inc. provided the visual effects for the film. The first teaser visual was unveiled on 31 December 2016. The updated version with the 2017 New Year Greetings were unveiled on the following day with the text "Happy New Year". In February 2017, they unveiled the release date of 1 December, with the CG appearance of Alphonse
On 19 February 2018, the film released on Netflix as a Netflix Original Film. Notably, in the English-language dub voice actors Vic Mignogna, Aaron Dismuke, and Caitlin Glass reprised their roles as Edward Elric, Alphonse Elric, and Winry Rockbell respectively from the Funimation dub of the Fullmetal Alchemist anime series.
The film received mostly mixed reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 28% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8/10. On Metacritic, which assigns and normalizes scores of critic reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on 5 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".In July 2017, Sori and Yamada said a sequel was in development. In early March 2022, it was announced that two sequels would be released during the year: Fullmetal Alchemist: The Revenge of Scar and Fullmetal Alchemist: The Final Alchemy , with Mackenyu playing the role of Scar. They were released on 20 May and 24 June respectively. They became available on Netflix on 20 August and 24 September respectively. | [
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Government | Gemma_Ubasart | Gemma Ubasart González is a Spanish political scientist and politician. She served as Minister of Justice, Rights and Memory of Catalonia between October 2022 and August 2024, as city councilor in Castellar del Vallès, secretary for international affairs and public policies for change in Podemos, and secretary general of Podemos in Catalonia in 2015.
Ubasart attended the Autonomous University of Barcelona, where she graduated with a PhD. She also obtained a graduate degree in the penal system and human rights at the University of Barcelona, as well as a postgraduate degree in applied social research and data analysis. She became a professor at the University of Girona, and has also been a professor at the Autonomous University of Madrid.In the 2007 Spanish local elections, she was elected to the city council of her municipality, affiliated with the L'Altraveu per Castellar (es). In November 2014 she was elected a member of the Citizen Council of Podemos, and joined the Coordination Council of Pablo Iglesias Turrión as secretary of international affairs and public policies for change. In February 2015, she was elected secretary general of Podemos in Catalonia, and she held that position until October 10, 2015.
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Government | Government_agency | A government agency or state agency, sometimes an appointed commission, is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the machinery of government (bureaucracy) that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions, such as an administration. There is a notable variety of agency types. Although usage differs, a government agency is normally distinct both from a department or ministry, and other types of public body established by government. The functions of an agency are normally executive in character since different types of organizations (such as commissions) are most often constituted in an advisory role — this distinction is often blurred in practice however, it is not allowed.
A government agency may be established by either a national government or a state government within a federal system. Agencies can be established by legislation or by executive powers. The autonomy, independence, and accountability of government agencies also vary widely.
Early examples of organizations that would now be termed a government agency include the British Navy Board, responsible for ships and supplies, which was established in 1546 by King Henry VIII and the British Commissioners of Bankruptcy established in 1570.From 1933, the New Deal saw growth in U.S. federal agencies, the "alphabet agencies" as they were used to deliver new programs created by legislation, such as the Federal Emergency Relief Administration.
From the 1980s, as part of New Public Management, several countries including Australia and the United Kingdom developed the use of agencies to improve efficiency in public services.
The Government agencies in Sweden are State controlled organizations who act independently to carry out the policies of the Government of Sweden. The Ministries are relatively small and merely policy-making organizations, allowed to control agencies by policy decisions but not by direct orders. This means that while the agencies are subject to decisions made by the Government, Ministers are explicitly prohibited (so-called ban on ministerstyre) from interfering with the day-to-day operation in an agency or the outcome in individual cases as well.In addition to the State and its agencies, there are also local government agencies, which are extensions of municipalities and county councils.
Agencies in the United Kingdom are either executive agencies answerable to government ministers or non-departmental public bodies answerable directly to parliament or the devolved assemblies of the United Kingdom. They are also commonly known as Quangos.Agencies can be created by enabling legislation by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Scottish Parliament or the Welsh Parliament.
The Congress and President of the United States delegate specific authority to government agencies to regulate the complex facets of the modern American federal state. Also, most of the 50 U.S. states have created similar government agencies. Each state government is similar to the national government, with all but one having a bicameral legislature.The term "government agency" or "administrative agency" usually applies to one of the independent agencies of the United States government, which exercise some degree of independence from the President's control. Although the heads of independent agencies are often appointed by the government, they can usually be removed only for cause. The heads of independent agencies work together in groups, such as a commission, board or council. Independent agencies often function as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government with the authority to legislate (through the issuing or promulgation of regulations), to adjudicate disputes, and to enforce agency regulations. Examples of independent agencies include the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Federal Reserve Board, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).
A broader definition of the term "government agency" also means the United States federal executive departments that include the President's cabinet-level departments and their sub-units. Examples of these include the Department of Energy (DOE) and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), which is a bureau of the Department of the Treasury.
Most federal agencies are created by Congress through statutes called "enabling acts", which define the scope of an agency's authority. Because the Constitution does not expressly mention federal agencies (as it does the three branches), some commentators have called agencies the "headless fourth branch" of the federal government. However, most independent agencies are technically part of the executive branch, with a few located in the legislative branch of government. By enacting the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946, Congress established some means to oversee government agency action. The APA established uniform administrative law procedures for a federal agency's promulgation of rules and adjudication of claims. The APA also sets forth the process for judicial review of agency action.
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Government | Official_communications_in_imperial_China | Official communications in imperial China, the era which lasted from the 221 BC until AD 1912, required predictable forms and means. Documents flowed down from the emperor to officials, from officials to the emperor, from one part of the bureaucracy to others, and from the emperor or his officials to the people. These documents, especially memorials to the throne, were preserved in collections which became more voluminous with each passing dynasty and make the Chinese historical record extraordinarily rich.
This article briefly describes the major forms and types of communication going up to and down from the emperor.
Under Chinese law, the emperor's edicts had the force of law. By the time the Han dynasty established the basic patterns of bureaucracy, edicts or commands could be issued either by the emperor or in the emperor's name by the proper official or unit of the government. Important edicts were carved on stone tablets for public inspection. One modern scholar counted more than 175 different terms for top down commands, orders, edicts, and such.Edicts formed a recognized category of prose writing. The Qing dynasty scholar Yao Nai ranked "Edicts and orders" (Zhao-ling) as one of the thirteen categories of prose writing, citing prototypes which went back to the Zhou dynasty and the Book of History. Han dynasty edicts, sometimes actually written by high officials in the name of the emperor, were known for their literary quality. In later dynasties, both emperors and officials who wrote in the emperor's name published collections of edicts.
The history of China features a range of famous edicts and instructions. Here are examples in chronological order:
An edict issued in 213 BC by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty ordered the burning of books and burying of scholars.
The Edict on the Proclamation of the Dynastic Name (建國號詔) issued in 1271 by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty promulgated the official dynastic name of "Great Yuan", officially established the Yuan dynasty as a Chinese dynasty, and explicitly claimed political succession from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty.
The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty issued a series of Great Warnings (御製大誥) which informed his people and his bureaucracy of their failings and his instructions to correct them.
Also issued by the Hongwu Emperor, the Instructions of the Ancestor was effectively an edict directed at his descendants.
The Hongwu Emperor also issued the Six Maxims (聖諭六言) which instructed his subjects:
Treat your parents with piety; respect your elders and superiors; live at peace in your villages; instruct your children and grandchildren; make your living peacefully; commit no wrong.
The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty issued the Sacred Edict in 1670 to educate his subjects on Confucian principles. This was to be posted in every village and read periodically to the assembled population. The edict was later expanded upon by the Yongzheng Emperor in 1724 and distributed in Chinese, Manchu and Mongolian languages.
The Qianlong Emperor issued an edict to George III of the United Kingdom in 1793 instructing him that England had nothing of value to offer.
A memorial, most commonly zouyi, was the most important form of document sent by an official to the emperor. In the early dynasties, the terms and formats of the memorial were fluid, but by the Ming dynasty, codes and statutes specified what terminology could be used by what level of official in what particular type of document dealing with what particular type of problem. Criminal codes specified punishments for mistranscriptions or using a character that was forbidden because it was used in one of the emperor's names. The emperor might reply at length, perhaps dictating a rescript in response. More often he made a notation in the margin in vermilion ink (which only the emperor could use) stating his wishes. Or he might simply write "forward to the proper ministry," "noted," or use his brush to make a circle, the equivalent of a checkmark, to indicate that he had read the document.In 1370, the Hongwu emperor established an office to organize the flow of memorials, which could come from both officials and commoners, and this became the Office of Transmission (Tongzheng si). The staff copied each memorial received, and forwarded the original to the emperor. The emperor once severely scolded a director of the office for failing to report several memorials: "Stability depends on superior and inferior communicating; there is none when they do not. From ancient times, many a state has fallen because a ruler did not know the affairs of the people."
By the height of the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, memorials from bureaucrats at the central, provincial, and county level supplied the emperors (and modern historians) with personnel evaluations, crop reports, prices in local markets, weather predictions, intelligence on social affairs, and any other matter of possible interest. Memorials were transported by government couriers and then copied and summarized by the Grand Secretariat, which itself had been perfected in the preceding Ming dynasty. They would be copied by clerks and entered into official registers.
This bureaucracy saved the emperor from being swamped with tedious detail but might also shield him from information which he needed to know. The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1672:1722), the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722:1735), and the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735:1796) therefore developed a supplementary system of "Palace Memorials" (zouzhe) which they instructed local officials to send directly, without passing through bureaucratic filters. One type, the "Folding Memorial," was written on a page small enough for the emperor to hold in his hand and read without being observed. The Yongzheng Emperor, who preferred the written system over audiences, increased the use of these palace memorials by more than ten times over his father. He found he could get quick responses to emergency requests instead of waiting for the formal report, or give frank instructions: Of one official he said, "he is good-hearted, hard-working old hand. I think he's very good. But he's a bit coarse... just like Zhao Xiangkui, except that Zhao is intelligent." Likewise a provincial governor could frankly report that a subordinate was "scatter brained." The emperor could then instruct the official to also submit a routine memorial. Most important, bypassing the regular bureaucracy made it easier for the emperor to have his own way without being restricted by the regulations of the administrative code.
The system of memorials and rescripts, even more than personal audiences, was the emperor's way to shape and cement relations with his officials. Memorials could be quite specific and even personal, since the emperor knew many of his officials quite well. The Kangxi Emperor, for instance, wrote one of his generals:
"I am fine. It is cool now outside the passes. There has been enough rain so the food now is very good... You're an old man -- are grandfather and grandmother both well?"
But sometimes impatience broke through: "Stop the incessant sending of these greetings!" or "I hear tell you've been drinking. If after receiving my edict you are not able to refrain, and so turn your back on my generosity, I will no longer value you or your services." The historian Jonathan Spence translated and joined together memorials of the Kangxi Emperor to form an autobiographical "self-portrait" which gives an feel for the emperor's place in the flow of government.
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Government | Quality_of_Nationality_Index | The Quality of Nationality Index (QNI) ranks the quality of nationalities based on internal and external factors. Each nationality receives an aggregated score based on economic strength, human development, ease of travel, political stability and overseas employment opportunities for their citizens. The QNI was created by Dimitry Kochenov and Christian Kälin, chairman of Henley & Partners.
The phenomenon of being a native of any country was described as 'a birthright lottery' by Ayelet Shachar, Professor of Law, Political Science, and Global Affairs at the University of Toronto. At the same time, the QNI shows that nationalities diverge greatly in their practical value, which is not always parallel with the characteristics of those countries, such as economic power or level of human development. Applying the methodology of the QNI, some economically strong countries have relatively unattractive nationalities. For example, Indian nationality shares 106th place with Senegalese nationality (2017 data). By contrast, some small countries have nationalities of larger value, such as those of Lithuania and Romania, which are ranked 22nd and 25th respectively in the QNI 2017.The QNI is frequently cited by media organisations such as Forbes, Bloomberg, The Enquirer and Business Standard.
The QNI takes a quantitative approach to determine the value of a nationality based on seven parameters, comprising both internal value (40%) and external value (60%). Three parameters reflect the internal value of a nationality: human development (15%), economic strength (15%), and peace and stability (10%). Four parameters reflect the external value of a nationality: diversity of travel freedom (15%), weight of travel freedom (15%), diversity of settlement freedom (15%), and weight of settlement freedom (15%).Most nationalities of the world, as well as EU citizenship, are included in the ranking. Not included are fantasy passports and nationalities of non-recognized states such as micronations, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Somaliland. All nationalities receive a score from 0% to 100%.
The data is aggregated from various objective sources. The internal factors present the quality of life and opportunities for personal growth within the country of origin of the holder of nationality.Human Development is measured using the United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq and Indian economist Amartya Sen, and used to measure countries' development by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Ul Haq, often calculated in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life, such as being well fed, sheltered, and healthy, or doing work, education, voting, participating in community life. Consequently, this index centres on three different human development areas: life expectancy at birth, expected years of education, and standard of living.The QNI normalizes the HDI scores of the countries with which a particular nationality is associated to a 0-15% scale. The nationality of the highest-scoring country on the HDI gets the full 15% score, with the other nationalities being ranked proportionately.
Economic strength of a nationality is based on the Gross domestic product (GDP) at Purchasing power parity (PPP) of each country. It is calculated from data provided by the International Monetary Fund. If there is no reliable Purchasing power parity data available, non-PPP data from the World Bank are used. GDP at PPP scores are normalized to a 0-15% scale, the largest economy receiving the full 15% score.Peace and Stability are calculated using data by the annual Global Peace Index (GPI), published by the Institute for Economics and Peace. Peace and stability accounts for 10% of the total QNI General Ranking scale. The nationality associated with the most peaceful country receives the full 10%, and others are ranked proportionately on the basis of the ranking scale used by the GPI.External factors identify the quality and diversity of opportunities the holder of a nationality can pursue outside their country of origin.Diversity of travel freedom is based on how many destinations the holder of a particular nationality can visit without a visa or with a visa-on-arrival for short-term tourism or business purposes. The data is taken from the International Air Transport Association (IATA). The diversity of travel freedom accounts for 15% of the total QNI General Ranking scale.Weight of travel freedom evaluates the quality of the travel freedom the holder of a nationality has without a visa or with a visa-on-arrival for short term visits. Unlike Diversity of Travel Freedom, which looks only at the number of destinations, weight of travel freedom looks at the value of having visa-free or visa-on-arrival travel access to a particular country. This value is based on the Human Development (50%) and Economic Strength (50%) of each country destination. This is based on the presumption that for most people, having visa-free access to certain countries is of higher value than having visa-free access to others. Weight of travel freedom accounts for 15% of the total QNI General Ranking scale.Diversity of settlement freedom is based on the number of foreign countries in which the holder of a nationality can freely settle for at least 360 days with automatic access to work there. Diversity of settlement freedom accounts for 15% of the total QNI General Ranking scale. The most advanced example of a regional organization which allows nationals of its member states to freely settle in each of the other member states is the European Union, but other regional organizations which include free settlement are Mercosur, the Gulf Cooperation Council, and the Economic Community of West African States. Outside such regional organizations, Georgia is the only country that allows almost all foreigners to freely settle and work in its country.Weight of settlement freedom evaluates the quality of the settlement freedom of the holder of a nationality, by looking at the Human Development (50%) and Economic Strength (50%) of the countries to which the nationality holder has settlement access. Weight of settlement freedom accounts for 15% of the total QNI General Ranking scale.As of 2017, Italian and French nationality is ranked the best in the world, according to the latest edition of the Quality of Nationality Index (QNI), earning a score of 81.7% out of a possible 100%, just ahead of Germany. While the difference between the scores for France and Germany are small, France's comparative advantage lies in its greater settlement freedom, attributable mainly to the country's former colonial empire.Italian and French nationalities remained the best in the world according to the 2018 edition of the Quality of Nationality Index, earning a score of 83.5% out of a possible 100%, fractionally ahead of Germany and the Netherlands.
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Government | Substitute_(elections) | A substitute is a political candidate who is not directly elected, but who succeeds a politician holding an elected office after that person ceases to hold the office due to, for example, resignation or death. This system can be used to fill casual vacancies instead of holding by-elections or special elections to fill the vacant office. Substitutes are nominated, not at the time the vacancy arises but, rather, before the election for the information of voters. In voting systems which use electoral lists, the candidates on a given list who are not among those initially elected may become the substitutes for those who are. In other systems, individual candidates may have substitutes.
In Belgian federal parliamentary elections, each electoral list has both a list of "effective" candidates and a list of "substitutes" (Dutch: opvolgers; French: suppléants). The system was introduced as part of the law of 29 December 1899 introducing proportional representation. Before that, by-elections were held to succeed members.For municipal and provincial elections, as well as those for the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region since 2019, there is only one list, and substitutes are designated, according to various systems from one region to another, on the base of their own preferential votes, weighted or not with list votes, i.e. not for one or several specific candidate(s).
In the elections for the French National Assembly, each candidate is on a ticket with a substitute (French: Suppléant), who assumes the functions of the elected deputy under specific conditions. The substitute assumes the functions of the deputy if the deputy dies, enters the executive government, is appointed by the Government to an assignment of more than six months' duration, or appointed to the Constitutional Council or Defender of Rights (Défenseur des droits).If the deputy resigns, or their election is determined to be invalid, a by-election (French: élections legislatives partielles) is held instead.
The Electoral Code does not provide for any age restriction to be appointed alternate. For the Fourteenth Legislature (2012 - 2017), the youngest Deputy-Substitute in France was Nicolas Brien, born in 1989, who was elected in Allier's 2nd constituency.
In the Philippines, a substitute is a person who replaces the candidate up to midday of election day. The Commission on Elections only allows substitution for certain reasons and on certain periods, if the original candidate dies, withdraws or is disqualified; after a certain date, substitution via withdrawal is prohibited, and a candidate can only be substituted by someone who has the same surname as the original candidate. Furthermore, only candidates who were nominated by a political party can be substituted.If a vacancy occurs after the term of office begins, substitutes do not replace the original candidate:
For executive offices (president, governor, mayor), the deputy (vice president, vice governor, vice mayor, as the case may be) replaces the original officeholder
For the vice president, the president nominates a new officeholder, which is then confirmed by Congress.
For members of Congress, a special election (called as "by-elections" elsewhere) is held, except for members elected under the party-list system, where the next person on the list takes their place.
For deputies of local executive offices (vice governor, vice mayor), the candidate with the highest number of votes in the local legislature (Sangguniang Panlalawigan and Sangguniang Panlungsod or Sangguniang Bayan, as the case may be) replaces the original officeholder
For members of local legislatures, the political party nominates a new officeholder; if the vacating officeholder is an independent, the chief executive (president, governor, mayor, as the case may be) appoints a replacement.
Magnolia Antonino substituted for her husband Gaudencio Antonino in the 1967 Philippine Senate election after the latter died on election eve. Magnolia eventually won.Edna Sanchez substituted for her husband Armando Sanchez in 2010 Batangas gubernatorial election after the latter died. Edna eventually lost.
Rodrigo Duterte substituted for Martin Diño in the 2016 Philippine presidential election after the latter withdrew. Duterte eventually won.
Sara Duterte substituted for Lyle Fernando Uy in the 2022 Philippine vice presidential election after the latter withdrew. Duterte eventually won.
Bong Go substituted for Grepor Belgica in the 2022 Philippine presidential election after the latter withdrew. Go eventually withdrew himself.
Until the 20th century, the Vice President was mostly a substitute for the President.Andrew Johnson replaced Abraham Lincoln after his assassination.Harry Truman replaced Franklin Roosevelt after his death.
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Government | Treaty_of_Verdun | The Treaty of Verdun (French: Traité de Verdun,
German: Vertrag von Verdun), agreed in 10 August 843, divided the Frankish Empire into three kingdoms between Lothair I, Louis II and Charles II, the surviving sons of the emperor Louis I, the son and successor of Charlemagne. The treaty was concluded following almost three years of civil war and was the culmination of negotiations lasting more than a year. It was the first in a series of partitions contributing to the dissolution of the empire created by Charlemagne and has been seen as foreshadowing the formation of many of the modern countries of western Europe.
The treaty was the first of the four partition treaties of the Carolingian Empire, followed by the Treaties of Prüm (855), Meerssen (870), and Ribemont (880).
Following Charlemagne's death, Louis was made ruler of the Frankish Empire. Agobard, archbishop of Lyon, opposed the division of the empire, as he claimed that it would divide the church. During his reign, Louis the Pious divided the empire so that each of his sons could rule over their own kingdom under the greater rule of their father. Louis’ eldest son, Lothair I, was given the title of emperor but because of several re-divisions by his father and the resulting revolts, he became much less powerful. When Louis died in 840, Lothair I claimed overlordship over the entirety of his father's kingdom in an attempt to reclaim the power he had at the beginning of his reign as emperor. He also supported his nephew Pepin II's claim to Aquitaine, a large province in the west of the Frankish realm. Lothair's brother, Louis II, and his half-brother Charles II refused to acknowledge Lothair's suzerainty and declared war against him. After a bloody civil war, they defeated Lothair at the Battle of Fontenoy in 841 and sealed their alliance in 842 with the Oaths of Strasbourg which declared Lothair unfit for the imperial throne, after which he became willing to negotiate a settlement. The meeting happened shortly before August 10, as confirmed by a contemporary letter.Each of the three brothers was already established in one kingdom: Lothair in the Kingdom of Italy; Louis the German in the Kingdom of Bavaria; and Charles II in the Kingdom of Aquitaine. Lothair I received Francia Media (the Middle Frankish kingdom).
In the settlement, Lothair (who had been named co-emperor in 817) retained his title as emperor, but it conferred only nominal overlordship of his brothers' lands. His domain later became the Low Countries, the Rhineland west of the Rhine, Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, Provence, and the Kingdom of Italy (which covered the northern half of the Italian Peninsula). He also received the two imperial cities, Aachen and Rome.
Louis II received Francia Orientalis (the East Frankish kingdom).
He was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine (although not the Netherlands to the north of the Rhine) and to the north and east of Italy, altogether called East Francia. It eventually became the High Medieval Kingdom of Germany, the largest component of the Holy Roman Empire.
Charles II received Francia Occidentalis (the West Frankish kingdom).
Pepin II was granted the Kingdom of Aquitaine, but only under the authority of Charles. Charles received all lands west of the Rhône, called West Francia. It eventually became the Kingdom of France.
After Lothair's death in 855, his eldest son, Louis II, inherited Italy and his father's claim to the Imperial throne. Upper Burgundy and Lower Burgundy (Arles and Provence) passed to Lothair's third son, Charles of Provence. The remaining territory north of the Alps, which did not previously have a name, was inherited by Lothair's second son, Lothair II, and was then named Lotharingia (present day Lorraine) after him.
The division reflected an adherence to the old Frankish custom of partible or divisible inheritance amongst a ruler's sons, rather than primogeniture (i.e., inheritance by the eldest son) which would soon be adopted by both Frankish kingdoms. Since Lotharingia combined lengthy and vulnerable land borders with poor internal communications as it was severed by the Alps, it was not a viable entity and soon fragmented. This made it difficult for a single ruler to reassemble Charlemagne's empire. Only Charles the Fat achieved this briefly.In 855, the northern section became fragile Lotharingia, which became disputed by the more powerful states that evolved out of Francia Occidentalis (present day France) and Francia Orientalis (present day Germany). Generations of kings of France and Germany were unable to establish a firm rule over Lothair's kingdom. While the north of Lotharingia was then composed of independent countries, the southern third of Lotharingia, Alsace-Lorraine, was traded back and forth between France and Germany from the 18th to the 20th century. In 1766, it passed to France after the death of Stanisław Leszczyński, who had acquired the region from the German Habsburgs by the Treaty of Vienna (1738) ending the War of Polish Succession (1733:1738). In 1871, Alsace-Lorraine became German, after the victory of Prussia and its German allies over the French in the Franco-Prussian War (1870:1871). In 1919, it became French again by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), following the French victory over the Germans in World War I (1914:1918). In 1940, Germany reannexed Alsace-Lorraine following Germany's conquest of France. Finally, in 1945, after World War II (1939:1945), Alsace-Lorraine was solidified as French territory, which it remains to this day, more than a thousand years after the Treaty of Verdun. The collapse of the Middle Frankish Kingdom also compounded the disunity of the Italian Peninsula, which persisted into the 19th century.
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Subsets and Splits